Technology

he manufacturing or engineering of functional systems at molecular level or nanoscale can be termed as nanotechnology. The word ‘nano’ has been coined to mean 10-9 or simply one billionth size. Special types of microscopes, scanning probe microscopes, are able to view particles the size of a nanometer.  In another definition, nanotechnology is the engineering of machines from molecules the size of a few nanometers.  These machines can be motors, robots and computers taking up the size smaller than a cell.  The field of nanotechnology cuts across several disciplines including medicine. Nanotechnologists often manipulate single atoms and molecules to create different microscopic systems.

According to Allhoff (2007), nanotechnology is a novel science.  Although nanoscale systems have been engineered, the future of nanotechnology promises great innovations which will change the face of the earth that we live (Allhoff, 23). The first physicist to explain the term nanotechnology in 1959 was Richard Feynman.  He explained the new possibilities of manipulating atoms in a talk presented at the California Institute of Technology. In the new technology, Feynman said that it is achievable to assemble the atoms in any manner. However, these possibilities were received with mixed reactions by some scientists and the public.  One publication, Engines of Creation, 1986 by K. Eric Drexler, an engineering graduate from MIT, drew much controversy.  In his work, Drexler explained the incredible nanotechnology applications despite the nanotechnology being widely applied in sunscreen, fabric and the engineering of other materials (Drexler, 16).  According to Drexler, nanotechnology has a potential to put together with molecules making up systems that will fully function as molecular machines.

With the possibilities of nanotechnology and its products of molecular machines, Drexler suggests that it would be promising to engineer nearly whatever thing imagined and allowable by Physics laws through arranging the molecules into whichever pattern preferred. Medical engineers, through nanotechnology will be capable to design drugs acting like living cells machines that are able to roam in the diseased cells and hence cure them.  The exciting possibilities, according to Drexler, include super tough materials and computers very small to be seen by human eye (Drexler, 21).  The technology also promises the manufacturing which is pollution free and self changing matter like a chair self changing into a table or something else. By understanding nanotechnology and biosystems, it would be easier to create machines that make their own copies and amass themselves to make complex structures. The possibilities are exciting which promises a low cost of living and a strain free environment.

Nanotechnology received a grant of USD400 million during the second term of President Clinton. The funds were provided through the National Nanotechnology Initiative purposely to steer potential research in nanotechnology. The U.S. House of Representatives Science Committee, in April, 2003, was called to talk about the dangers and possible benefits of nanotechnology.  This was as a result of the proposed bill to boost funding in nanotechnology.

Although the benefits of nanotechnology seem really promising, there are key dangers associated with nanotechnology. Bill Joy working with Sun Microsystems expressed his panic of a situation of the dreaded gray goo. In this scenario, the self replicating nanobots overtake the world and swallow it up. Another recent publication, Prey, a science and fiction book by Michael Crichton highlights this fear. The application of nanotechnology requires implementation of policies, security to avoid unnecessary complications (Atkinson, 33).

The fears attributed to nanotechnology are common.  An introduction of a powerful technology is able to cause enormous social changes or disruptions. The required step is to further nanotechnology in responsible ways for the society to harvest the benefits of the technology and avoid its harms. It has always been a trend that the society has to express fear when new technology is introduced and in most times, there is fear of changes. For example, the introduction of personal computer was received with some controversy and speculations.  There were claims that computers would overtake the world and reduce the need for human teachers by 1985. To present, more than two decades, nothing like such has been experienced, meaning that the claims were flaws (Dingman, 679).  It is agreed that there are many issues connected with the use of computers like the hacking which threatens the security and privacy.  However, one technology solves another problem afflicting another technology. Computers are widely used in the modern world and systems are protected from intruders by firewalls, antispy and antivirus programs. The society is time to time challenged by several problems.  As a result, it is willing receive the changes promised by nanotechnology since its benefits are rewarding.  Some of the problems affecting the society include disease, hunger and a number of chemical pollution.  Nanotechnology promises to make the problems a past tense but it needs dissemination of information to the public and policy regulations (Lemley, 56).

The miniature machines created by nanotechnologists are sometimes referred to as Personal nano factories or PNs.  Usually, the building of a PN requires a working fabricator.  A fabricator is a nanoscale device capable of combining different individual molecules into functional shapes (Gulati, Allen, 35). Fabricators are capable of building a miniature nanofactory, which in turn builds another nanofactory twice the size and the process continues to get a resulting complex system after some short time.

Personal nanofactory products are assembled from nanoblocks and then fabricated within the nanofactory. With the aid of CAD (Computer Aided Design) programs, the creation of highly advanced products is made possible.  This is done by identifying a pattern of nanoblocks predesigned.

The applications of nanofactories are diverse.  From the life saving medical nanorobots to tools to be used in wars, nanofactories promise to produce useful tools that will make easier most operations.  In computer industry, the networking of computers for all people in the world will be made possible.  This will also include the networking of cameras so that it will be great easier to watch everyone.  There will be improved economies as procedures will be taking shorter time hence productivity will be enhanced (Lemley, 57).  The rate of discoveries or invention of new products will be high.  In the field of weapon production and medicine, there will be great benefits.

One most applied field of nanotechnology is mechanochemistry. Mechanochemistry involves fixing of one or two molecules then pushing, twisting or pulling in a desired manner until chemical reactions occur at exact points so desired.  The procedure takes place in a vacuum meaning that the condition is under maximum control and no water or any molecules are interfering. Addition of an atom to a surface will necessitate the binding of the atom into a tool tip molecule at the extremes of a mechanical manipulator. The atom is moved close to the surface and it is necessary to ascertain that it has weaker attraction to the tool tip molecule than the surface (Dingman, 680).  On bringing them together, the bond transfers, this is the same concept in chemistry.  The difference existing between mechanochemistry and the ordinary chemistry is that in mechanochemistry, the tool tip molecule is always directed using computer controls.  This possibility ensures the performance of one reaction at many sites on the surface and a few reactions can give a lot of flexibility in what to be designed.

The technology of molecular manufacturing and nanotechnology has been perceived as rather a fiction due to its complexity and unfamiliarity.  This is the reason why its applications are real staggering.  The concepts are only understood by a few scientists and engineers and those who don’t understand it out rightly say it is close to impossibility.  The situation leading to little applications of the technology is partly contributed by the misconceptions created by the media and science fictional hype.  In fact the scientists dismissing molecular manufacturing do not have prior knowledge in the field (Gulati, Allen, 46). They are mostly experts in chemistry, biotechnology, or some other related nanoscale sciences and technologies.  They therefore fail to embrace the technology since they poorly understand it.
The debate about the nanotechnology as a potential danger or savior takes a broad dimension.  It is true that nanotechnology can have great potential for benefit to humankind.  However, nanotechnology can also bring severe dangers. Great dangers arising form nanotechnology applications are as a result of malicious molecular manufacturing.  If the technology is properly administered and safely developed, dangers like toxic nanoparticle and other nanoscale technology products can be avoided greatly. It has therefore a threat to allow the applications of nanotechnology to continue through research. The limitation of the nanotechnology application can be said to be misleading because it will be close to reality to stop countries like china and Japan or Asia who have developed the nanotechnology because of the availability of scanning probe microscopy, biotechnology and other enabling technologies. The second reason why the stopping of nanotechnology isn’t that easy is the promise the technology has for man in the future (Drexler, 29).  The great promises like environmental conservation and repair, manufacturing that is cheap, clean and efficient, medical discoveries and greatly advanced computer cannot let the technology to be stopped.

The controversy created by the dangers of self-replicating nanobots has been the topic of discussion for a long time.  Molecular manufacturing is actually far from the grey goo stuff. The proposed production system restricts the free-floating assemblers sometimes referred as nanobots by fiction writers. It will not be easy to build extensive factories with all the machinery of nanoscale stuck down and entirely inert without any external control. Instead, self-replicating mechanochemical nanobots are governed by the laws of physics.  The fiction story, Prey, by Michael Crichton serves as a good entertainment and never based in good science (Dingman, 681).   Practically, molecular manufacturing has not been successfully

The development of nanotechnology and molecular manufacturing can greatly solve the problems that affect the world today. Example of these problems is the water shortage which is a severe and increasing problem. It is practical that much of the water in the planet earth is used for agriculture and industry.  Nanotechnology and molecular manufacturing promises to greatly reduce these requirements. In medicine nanotechnology is devising for mechanisms to manage infectious diseases.  This problem continues to scourge many parts of the world especially the developing world leading to poor quality of life.  Computers and other devises will be developed with ease meaning that there will be a reduction in cost. 
The problem of electrical power still exists in many areas. Nanotechnology promises to make this efficient and cheap building of light emitting devices (Gulati, Allen, 50).  The electrical equipment and power storage devices will be available cheaply.  Nanotechnology will exploit the solar thermal power as a principal and copious source of energy. Through the use of advanced nanotech products, it is easier to address the problem of environmental degradation which is also a serious problem worldwide. The reduction in the need for space is one major addressing of nanotechnology.  Most countries cannot afford to the manufacturing infrastructure. Therefore, molecular manufacturing technology makes the manufacturing clean and self-contained taking less space.  Lastly, molecular manufacturing will provide cheap and highly advanced medical research and healthcare equipments rendering the availability of improved medicine. The cause of countless social unrest can be blamed on disease, material poverty and ignorance which molecular manufacturing is able to address.

There is no single known technology that is a solution to all problems.  Nanotechnology has promised exciting possibilities to solve a number of human problems. Technologies have been developed over years to address the problems of housing, plumbing and health. Proper practice of agriculture and industry can save the exploitation of water, land, materials, and labor resources.  This in the overall reduces pollution. The cheap and reliable power will mean that people will be able to access to information, education, and communication services.  These are sources of numerous opportunities for improving oneself to become efficient economically and have a participatory government (Allhoff, 28). The problem with modern industries is that the technology applied relies on dispersed manufacturing, which often requires a lot of particular materials and machines and extremely trained personnel. Molecular manufacturing can function without skilled labor once installed and no need for an extensive sustaining infrastructure.  It will be easier for a single personal nanofactory having a single chemical and power supply to produce a wide range of useful and reliable products. The PN can also make copies of itself doubling the infrastructure for manufacturing within a short time (Allhoff, 41).
The problem of wasting water is a concern to develop nanotechnology.  The recovery of tainted water by simple and reliable electrical and mechanochemical methods is possible with nanotechnology.  The water can again be used for domestic and agricultural use.  The physical filters having nanoscale pores remove almost 100 percent of bacteria, viruses and prions. Salts and heavy metals are also removed using an electrical separation technology which attracts the ions to the plates of a supercapacitor (Ratner, 11).

The solar energy is abundant but the harvesting is tricky.  Nanotechnology looks to harvest and make solar energy practicable and shift the tradition of using the fuels containing carbon. Carbon based fuels are non renewable, inefficient and emit carbon dioxide, radioactive particle and other waste products into the atmosphere. The generation of solar electricity depends on accumulating the direct sunlight or by photovoltaic conversion (Atkinson, 63). Nanotechnology can apply the sun-tracking designs using cheap computers and compact actuators to make energy available. The energy harvested can then be stored well for days in large flywheels made of thin diamond.

The face of the earth will change since computer will be much cheaper. It is possible for nanotechnology to develop computer logic gates just a few nanometers and still be adequate to be piled in three dimensions. A whole supercomputer can be the size of a cubic millimeter and be sold very cheap. It is also possible to build high computer display resolution with actuators the size less than a bacterium. With diamondoid technology, it is easier to compute, communicate and generate radio waves since the GHz mechanical frequencies senses and produces radio waves (Atkinson, 65).
In environmental protection, nanotechnology addresses the problem of environmental degradation caused by farming. The advanced technology will allow activities like green houses to dominate and pollute will be more contained.  The easily stored solar energy promised by nanotechnology will reduce sooth, ash, nitric oxide, carbondioxide and hydrocarbon emissions. Molecular manufacturing will result to the rapid deployment of environmental friendly technology that is self contained even in areas that currently do not have a technological infrastructure.

The medical field may take long to realize the fruits of molecular manufacturing although the technology will impact the practice of medicine. The diagnosis of diseases will be very easy and medical research will be intensified opening ways for quick response to emerging infections and those engineered. Continuous health monitoring will be possible through small numerous and cheap sensors, computers or other implantable devices (Dingman, 681).  These devices will allow semi-automated disease management.

The appropriate application of the technology needs the address of ethical issues.  The question on inheriting the future generation a world better than we found it seem to be in the minds of the people when a new technology is being introduced.  The increased population has led to degradation of environment the extinction of species, the social injustice, poverty, starvation, chronic warfare and incurable diseases. Technology hold the fate of humankind, it can spoil the fate or build it. Debates on applications of genetic engineering, nuclear physics and now nanotechnology fill the air. Particularly nanotechnology that cuts across diverse spheres needs ethical issues to be sufficiently addressed (Ratner, 17).  The ethical guidelines make the application of technology to be within the limit, only benefiting the humankind.

Nanotechnology is designed to create a world of wealth where all people access the basic requirements. The needs include sufficient safe water, food, housing, medical care, security, clean environment among others. The ethical aspect of nanotechnology is that it should give high priority to economic and efficient global products and services distribution.  In the defense sector, the military research and use of nanotechnology must only be restricted to security systems and defense but not for aggression or political agendas.  If there is any research funded by the governments that produces technological advances not related to military, the research must be publicized.

 It is a recommendation that all scientists working with nanotechnology to have a strong background on ecology and public safety or at least one of them in a team should have the knowledge.  This will ensure that the scientists are held responsible for any abuse of science.  Another ethical issue is that every publication and discussions on the topic of nanotechnology need to be accurate sticking to scientific methods to avoid any hazard that may arise due to improper practice (Ratner, 38).

With proper use of nanotechnology, the world will make a positive step of sustaining the people with basic requirements at affordable costs.  The governments and organizations should donate to the development of this technology which has exciting promises of changing the face of the world.

Flotation (formerly referred to as froth flotation) is a common method which is used for separating hydrophobic materials from hydrophilic ones. It is a highly versatile method which is used for physically separating particulate mixtures based on their inherent properties. One major property exploited by this technique is the difference in the ability of air bubbles to selectively adhere to specific material or mineral surfaces in a mineral/water slurry.

    Flotation is a process which was first used in the mining industry. It is used to extract a certain type of useful mineral from its ore while simultaneously depressing the amount of useless or undesired minerals in the extracted concentrate. This is usually done by artificially and selectively rendering the useful mineral hydrophobic, using a combination of chemical reagents. This process involves reactions between mineral surfaces and dissolved ions including both sorption onto surfaces and displacement of surface cations (Scientific reports – X-ray spectroscopy, 2009).

    The flotation process is important in several industries. Apart from the mining industry, is useful in waste water treatment plants, paper recycling industries, archaeology, biological laboratories, etc. In a lot of industrial waste water treatment plants where a lot of floating solids, fats, oils and grease need to be removed from water, this process is necessary. It is particularly used to remove oil flicks from waste water effluents originating from petrochemical and chemical plants, oil refineries, natural gas processing plants, plastic factories and other similar industrial facilities. Dissolved air flotation units are majorly used in most of these industrial facilities. Also, in other industries where paper is recycles, flotation is an important process which is used to recover recycled paper. This process is also referred to as ‘deinking’. The main essence of deinking is to free and wash off the hydrophobic contaminants from the just recycled paper. Most of the contaminants are oil products such as grease, printing ink and other sticky materials. In the paper recycling industry, the flotation units are in a two stage system with a combination in series of three to five flotation cells (Glembotskii et al., 1972).

    The basis of flotation is the difference in hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity of different materials or minerals (Fuerstenau et al, 1985). Materials can naturally be hydrophobic, or the hydrophobicity can be artificially induced by the use of chemical reagents. Usually, the process of flotation starts with crushing and grinding of the mineral. This step, also known as comminution, is used to increase the surface area of the mineral ore. The ore is then grinded into fine powder and water is poured in to it. This mixture is referred to as slurry. The next step is the addition of a chemical reagent such as a surfactant or collector chemical. This chemical artificially induces hydrophobicity in the desired mineral and the type used depends on the characteristics of the desired mineral. Examples of chemicals used include pine oil (used to extract copper), xanthates, dethiophosphates, alcohols, cresylic acid (xylenol), etc. The mixture (slurry) of hydrophobic mineral and other hydrophobic particles is then introduced into a water tank and then aerated with the infusion of air bubbles. The hydrophilic portion remains in suspension because it does not adhere to the air bubbles and can be washed away. The hydrophobic mineral bearing portion of the slurring moves to the surface, forming a scum/foam (froth) which can then be filtered off as a separate product. The separated product can then be concentrated further and refined.

    An important aspect of the flotation process is the use of chemical reagents called collectors. These reagents are used to selectively induce hydrophobicity on the surface of a non-hydrophobic molecule. They form a single layer on the particle’s surface that essentially makes a thin film of non-polar hydrophobic hydrocarbon. The collectors greatly increase the contact angle between the surface of the mineral and the air bubble so that the bubbles will adhere to the surface (Froth flotation – Fundamental Principles, 2009). Selection of the collector to be used will depend on the properties of the raw mineral mixture. Collectors are generally classified based on their ionic charges. The classes include anionic collectors, cationic collectors and non-ionic collectors.

    Most anionic collectors are weak ionizers, that is, they are weak acids or weak bases which do not dissociate completely in water. When they dissociate in water, they produce a collector which has a negatively charged (anionic) end that attaches to the surface of the mineral and a hydrocarbon chain. The hydrocarbon chain extends into the liquid and imparts hydrophobic properties to the mineral. The use of anionic collectors depends on the minerals to be separated. There are anionic collectors for sulfide minerals and examples include dithiosulphates and various xanthates. Anionic collectors for oxide minerals include sodium oleate.

    Cationic collectors attach to the mineral surface by using their positively charged amine groups. Just as opposite charges attract, the positive charge of the amine group influences its attachment to the negatively charged mineral surface, these class of collectors are basically used for the flotation of silicates and some rare metal oxides. They are also used for the separation of sylvite (potassium chloride) from halite (sodium chloride).

    The third class of collectors, non-ionic collectors, do not have any charge. They have affinity for surfaces which are partially hydrophobic. They bind to these surfaces in order to increase their hydrophobicity. Examples include most hydrocarbon oils such as diesel, kerosene, fuel oil, etc.

    All collectors can either bind chemically to the mineral surface, a process known as chemisorption, or bind to the surface by use of physical forces (physisorption) (Klassen & Mokrousov, 1963). The chemical bond formed by chemisorption is irreversible because the ions undergo a chemical reaction with the surface of the mineral. Chemisorption is highly selective because the chemical bonds formed are specific for a particular set of minerals or elements. There is reversible adsorption in physisorption. This occurs mainly by the use of electrostatic forces of attraction of van der Waals forces. This process can be reversed by altering factors such as pH or concentraton of the solution. Unlike chemisorption, physisorption is less selective.

Flotation is an industrial process which has been used extensively for the separation of materials. It is a highly versatile process which has revolutionalized the face of ore extraction, waste water management and many other industrial processes. It is an important method which is still going to be used over the next thirty years because it is relatively simple and fast. It is also economically cheap when compared with other methods of separation.

From decades ago, it is rather proper to assume that act of writing merely required instruments such as pens, typewriters, and of course various forms of parchments on which to write on. However, as technological advancements brought forth and allowed for the use of computers throughout homes and business establishments for making various tasks, such as writing, simpler and easier, it may also be assumed that such tasks were in fact changed in certain ways. To further expound upon the impacts of technology on the act of writing, it is important to point out that the main aspects in which computers have allowed for such impacts and changes are mainly through the availability of word processors and accessibility of connectivity and end-product reproduction. In this sense, the changes brought forth by technology upon writing, may be categorized into three, namely new writing tools, means of connectivity, and of course the development of unique concerns. Therefore, in order to understand such changes further, the aforementioned categories must be discussed.

    As previously noted, among the main reasons as to why technology has affected the act of writing would be in terms of the development of new tools for use. In particular, electronic or software based word processors have allowed for easier means to type and to review different versions of a single work or paper (Petelin and Durham 203). Previous means of writing such as through typewriters or through the use of tools as basic as pens, one would not easily be able to delete and add text anywhere as desired. Hence, such previous means of writing are indeed inferior to software based writing. To further expound, through the use of word processors, a specific word regardless of the its placement throughout the paper, may easily be edited without wasting much time and resources (Petelin and Durham 203). In general, and taking into consideration the aforementioned details, word processors enabled the possibility of a writing process that is relatively easier or less of a chore in comparison to previous means of writing. In fact, due to word processors, writing has become faster which of course in turn affected the overall quality of written work (Petelin and Durham 203).

    In addition to such advantages and improvements as resulted from the presence of word processors, further enhancements have been brought forth from the development of automated writing assistants integrated into word processing software. To further expound, through automated writing assistants, simple errors in terms of spelling and repeated words have become rather easy to identify as it is automatically indicated on-screen; if the individual permits, it is also a possible that changes and corrections would be instantly applied (Petelin and Durham 203). It is rather evident as to why such a tool may be considered as a valuable advancement in writing technology and in turn most probably has developed potential changes to the act of writing as well. To explain, such technological developments would allow for writers to be less concerned regarding attention to detail and would allow for writers to focus their attention upon other aspects of writing (Petelin and Durham 203). Hence, it is apparent that technology has allowed for the act of writing to be conducted in a more approachable and easier manner.

    The act of writing does not merely pertain to the actual manner in which words are encoded and arranged, but also pertains to the way through which the writer intends for the accomplished work to be distributed. As a matter of fact, due to the fact that computer technology has allowed for worldwide connectivity, the potential audience and mode  of distribution of written works have been significantly enhanced and furthered (Rijlaarsdam,Bergh, and Couzijn 425). As expected, no longer are writers required to entirely submit or distribute their works in physical form and physically deliver or mail it to an intended recipient; due to technological advancements writers are now able to send  electronic versions of their writings to multiple recipients efficiently. As a matter of fact, due to the possibility to post such works throughout the web, which of course is mainly done through the use of computers, the possibility of a certain work being received and read by an unintended recipient has been considerably increased (Rijlaardam, Bergh, and Couzijn 425).

    Expectedly, increased connectivity also has direct effects upon the act or course of writing as well. For one, collaborative writing became a relatively easier pursuit since computer based collaborations and meetings allow for discussions that does not require any direct physical presence; such collaborative writing pursuits may in fact be done either in real time or through message boards (Rijlaardam, Bergh, and Couzijn 425). Thus, previous means of actually meeting up and discussing a certain writing project may now be superseded by such possibilities through the use of technology. Another change, that of course directly affects the act of writing as well, is the possibility to further establish and maintain anonymity (Stewart 263). Given such, writers nowadays are no longer considerably limited in terms of the level of honesty that they may express in certain works; in addition, writers now have the capability to completely portray their thoughts throughout their works without worry as much regarding judgment and personal safety.
 
    As noted beforehand, technological advancements also brought forth new and unique concerns regarding the act of writing, which of course implies that negative effects have been developed as well. Among the most significant concerns is in terms of how the process of writing is conducted, specifically in relation to the common structural work flow utilized in such a pursuit. In particular, the classical process of writing would be from top to bottom, or from the introductory portions up to the conclusion, with the advent of word processing technology however, writers gained the capability to write in a jigsaw and a non-linear manner wherein such sequencing is no longer important (Petelin and Durham 203). Such a process may result in the faster completion of a certain work, it would in fact also allow for increased changes of having problematic sequencing and logical flow. Hence, from the presence of such a concern, it becomes apparent that as the act of writing becoming easier improvements in terms of quality do not always follow.

    Aside from the abovementioned concern, other issues and potential problems are existent as well. In this sense, the problem of misled perceptions regarding perfection have been furthered through software based writing activities. The reason for such is that the overall work is considerably perfect from a visual sense, due to the lack of marks or erasures the writer assumes that the work is already perfect, only to find out later that significant mistakes that affect quality are present (Petelin and Durham 203). In addition to such, reviewing what is written or assessing the actual content of a work becomes troublesome as well, since the common writer may tend to merely watch out for automated hints of mistakes and errors, while not all mistakes may be detected by the software. Again, the presence of such concerns imply a possible trade-off between speed and quality in certain cases, emphasizing the fact that the changes and impacts brought forth by technology upon the act of writing is not entirely beneficial. Throughout the  discussion, it becomes clear that technology, through the availability of computers and different writing software, has indeed made a considerable impact upon the act of writing which may be seen from the various changes, both positive and negative, that such have caused.

Earthquakes
1. The west coast of the United States has the greatest frequency of earthquakes, especially California.  The western states of the United States have more earthquake activity than the eastern states.  The least amount of activity occurs in the middle of the continent.

2. My home is Ohio.  Color is predominantly dark grey indicating that risk is at low end of scale.

3. Most of the earthquakes are occurring along plate boundaries. The Pacific Ring of Fire is clearly discernible, extending from New Zealand, along the eastern edge of Asia, north across the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, and south along the coast of North and South America.  Activity is also illustrated on the boundary of the Australian and African plates.

4. Magnitude 6.0 – Kermadec Islands, New Zealand. This is in the South Pacific region
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5. Yes, I would be willing to live in a red area.  As long as the area has sufficient preparedness information available then I would not let earthquakes deter me from living in a red area.

6. The USGS resources can help prepare a family for an earthquake by advising on what to expect during an earthquake, what to do and what not to do during an earthquake, providing a list of emergency supplies to have ready,  thinking about potential escape routes and meeting places, and suggestions to minimize damage to people and property.

7. The two most recent earthquakes on the list are the 2005 Pakistan earthquake and the 2008 China earthquake. The list shows that from the time when records first started to be kept, right up until today, none of the leaps and bounds in scientific technology has included the ability to control or predict earthquakes.

8.  Seismographs are instruments used to record the motion of the ground during an Earthquake. The information gained is used to formulate Hazard Maps that can be used for many preparedness purposes e.g.  Information can be used to determine seismic provisions in building codes. Making stronger or more flexible buildings and bridges will reduce casualties from collapsing structures.

9. This type of geological energy is different from biological energy because biological energy can be controlled and predicted.  Both energies produce useable fuel. Biological energy produces fuel for the body and geological energy provides fuel that we use e.g. petrol and oil.