Technology

Finger Scan is cost efficient and accurate. The finger print, the most common biometric measurement, has been in use for security measures by law enforcement agencies for more than 100 years (Johnathon, 2001). The fingerprint has come a long way from India paper cards and Ink. The way the finger scan works is, that it looks minutia, and it is the position of the end points and junctions of individual ridges that mutually form the finger print. Most commercial applications rely on the collection of approx 14 to 30 minutias though the number that can be tracked can run into the hundreds. The initial system for a finger scanner, consist of fixed CPU connected to a chip. The chip read your minutia when your finger is positioned on it. Once the scan is complete, the computer compares the minutia to a list of official users in its database. The stored record cannot be used to recreate a fingerprint, because the records doesnt store photographs, but instead reflect the information about the exact points of the finger (Thompson, 2001).

Financial Institutions One of the first financial institution to implement finger scans was the Purdue Employees Federal Credit Union in Lafayette, Indiana in 1996.

Using it for Authentication
The Commerce Community
The commerce community has also begun to use fingerprint scanning for (HRM) human resource management, scam, internal theft, and administration access codes. One main case is a co-worker punching in the time card for an absent co-worker. Hand, finger, and voice biometrics can put a stop to this scam and save the company cash. One more type of problem in which businesses lose cash is forging. One case of a companys attempt to stop forging through the use of biometrics is Walt Disney. In March 1996, Disney World began testing the use of 3-D finger geometry to reduce fraud and add ease for visitors. The theme park sales hundreds of dollars in passes and has suffered a profit lose through the criminal action of forging passes. The allegation of the biometric hand scan to verify pass holders, has stopped the previous serious of fake passes. The commerce community has also begun using biometrics systems for domestic theft. Every one in business knows that the greater part of theft comes from its own employees. Businesses have even prepared a group under decline to classify this type of lost inventory. With the use of biometrics, no employee can argue that some one cracked their code or that they dont know who had access to it. By eliminating this problem, shrinkage would decrease and profit would rise.

Health Care
One of the near futures incorporation with biometrics is in the medical field. There is an accurate use for this type of tools in health care, which would make authorization a stronger word. With the execution of biometrics there is an option for nurses to enter a patients Identity number, authenticate their access codes with the scan of their fingerprint, which in turn can download the patients file (Simpson, 2001). Signing out would be the similarity to giving a signature, clearing up the jumble of you did when and what Im sure that this example sounds a spot critical of todays medical procedure, but it has to be. Biometrics will not take over the method that the medical field has established slightly it will help to enforce tighter security.

Judicial system
Number of people agrees that fingerprinting should be allowed in our courtrooms just as it has been for so many years. With so much inquiry of the soundness of fingerprinting evidence, it cannot probably be allowed in our judicial system. In order for us to resolve whether or not fingerprint evidence is scientifically sound, we need to look at what forms a match. Fingerprints are exclusive. Every persons fingerprint is like a snowflake, there are millions of them, yet no two are accurately alike. If we personally find it hard to take a hidden print from the scene of a crime, and compare it to a record of millions of fingerprints. Fingerprint databases are built from police stations, jails, prisons, and credentials programs like Identi-Kid.

Advantages and possible Applications
Increase security - Provide a convenient and low-cost additional level of security.
Reduce fraud by employing hard-to-forge technologies and materials.
Integrate a wide range of biometric solutions and technologies, customer applications      and databases into a robust and scalable control solution for facility and network access
Unequivocally link an individual to a transaction or event.

DisadvantagesHurdles for implementation - Security and Consistent Accuracy
The finger prints of the persons working in Chemical industries are frequently affected. So these industries should not use the finger print mode of authentication.

It is notice that with the age, the voices of a person changes. Also when the person has throat infection or flu the voice changes or if there are too much sound in the environment this method may not validate correctly. So this method of verification is not practicable all the time
Biometrics is a costly security solution.

For people affected with diabetes, the eyes get affected resulting in differences (Ritter, 2002).

Clearing the Hurdles
Skilled assessor of fingerprint verification agrees that the process of comparing hidden fingerprints of unknown origin with inked impressions of known origin is an art rather than a science. It requires an examiner to assess, on the basis of knowledge in dealing with thousands of fingerprints, what parts of an incomplete and partially blurred hidden print show detectable friction ridge detail that can be used for identification purposes. But whether fingerprint identification is art or science is undoubtedly no longer applicable to a Daubert inquiry (Meagher, n.d.). What needs to be observed is whether the underlying premises upon which fingerprint detection are based have been experimentally authenticated. And these premises are of three kinds

(1) Friction ridge detail of the epidermis on the palm side remains unchanged of the hands during the lifetime of a person, except for accidental or alteration.

(2) Friction ridge pattern areas shows so much variety of detail that no two patterns are ever found to be accurately the same on the digits (or palms or soles of feet) of one individual or on the digits (or palms or soles of feet) of further individuals.

(3) While these friction ridge patterns shows an endless variety of detail, they nevertheless fall within certain wide classes or categories that permit police to store and recover millions of prints according to categorization formulae (Moenssens, 2002).
       
There is, however, reputable empirically established evidence of the uniqueness of fingerprint patterns. Research by many examiners has shown that the fingerprints of identical twins are dissimilar, as are the prints of triplets, quadruplets, and quintuplets. In that sense, fingerprint recognition has been found to be even more discriminating than the vaunted DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) fingerprinting technique, which cannot differentiate, by todays technology, between the DNA of identical twins. Since inherited behaviour for similarity in patterns and sub-pattern types are the most common among people who are related closely to each other, the dissimilarity in the prints of such persons definitely can be taken as pragmatic evidence of fingerprint individuality (Moenssens, 2002).

Conclusion
Where we talk about conclusion of the Forensic Computing Authentication by Biometric Verification we came to realize that finger print, the most common biometric measurement, has been in use for security measures since years. Forensic computing is really very important in todays world, as we already know that internal theft and scam is very common in industries, if a person punching in the time card for an absent person. Hand, finger, and voice biometrics can put a stop to this scam and save the money of the company. Different types of industries like Health Care departments, Judiciary department and business communities are using the methods of authentication of Biometric Verification just because to stop scam, reduce fraud and unusual benefits taken by employees. There are some disadvantageshurdles for implementation- Security and consistent accuracy like Biometric authentication systems are cost effective and in rear cases it not works perfectly because there are some skin infection which changes the finger ridges and if we talk about voice biometric authentication system so some diseases like Flu and throat infection can change the persons voice. In spite of these disadvantages we have to focus on benefits of the Forensic Computing Authentication by Biometric Verification and in near future technology will definitely resolve these disadvantages.

Amazon is one of the first major companies that started an ecommerce website for selling goods online. The e-business based in Washington started initially as a bookstore, but due to its success diversified into other goods.

This website went through a big architectural change and moved from a two tier monolith to a distributed, decentralized services platform that serves many different applications. From this we see that the hardware they maintain at Amazon includes databases at different locations that are serving a set of applications. Originally the e-store started as one application that was linked to a back end written in C. This however changed once the e-store grew its products.

The website is highly service oriented and has divided its databases into small parts that act as service interfaces. The architecture is built around several application servers that provide service to different applications. The webpage itself is one of the application servers and also has other servers like the customer service application and the seller interface.

The application does not use a specific approach and at certain places uses Jboss or java, but they dont use the entire j2EE stack they only use the servlets. For the process requests that they service they use C, but for the building of the content they either use Pearl or Mason.

 Amazon probably has one of the largest Xen installations and it has modified and adapted the Xen version. The exact version that they use is not known but we know that it is based on the LIUNUx platform. They are using the REDHAT LINUX platform. Apart from that for storage purposes they have two separate forms of storage, on local storage and one network based storage. The local storage also called the instance storage is where data is stored till the instance is terminated and the other one is where persistent data is stored.

The configuration at Amazon uses cloud computing and have a distributed architecture. This indicates that they operate in multiple different zones. This kind of architecture poses a problem for Amazon as operating in different locations can lead to problems in integration and also other administrative issues such as power breakdowns. Amazon has faced a major problem of power breakdown due to this architecture that they employ. Due to a certain power breakdown in one of the areas the website is shutdown which obviously leads to losses.

This kind of problem is one that is faced by many of the ecommerce sites that operate in multiple availability zones. This kind of problem can be resolved by having the same applications being run at several application zones. This can be resolved as the application that faces the breakdown will be the only one that is shutdown and the customers would not be affected. The aim here is to provide the customers with smooth operations of the website and to do so when an application is run in multiple zones. If one zone breakdowns the customer request can be serviced by other zones that also operate the same application.

Another solution to this problem can be that the company can adopt a more centralized architecture and operate in one zone instead of at multiple zones. This way the problem of a breakdown in one zone would not affect the website. The centralized database can be used to service all request but that poses the problem of low scalability so they need to create a hybrid solution by having certain application servers at multiple sites as well as a centralized server so that the smooth running of the website is not affected by the problems at any one zone and the customers are provided with a good service.

TESCO is a UK based online grocery store, which boasts of being the largest retailer of grocery items in terms of global sales, on the World Wide Web. Since its inception in 1919, the company has gone a long way to meet the goals that had been set by founder Jack Cohen. Starting off as a single stall of goods, now the company is spread throughout the world through the internet, and with the trend of online shopping on the rise.

With big competitors such as EBay and Wal-Mart, TECO had to expand its business by meeting customer needs in minimal costs. Customer needs and demands poured in via internet through various channels.

Customer order processing was improved dramatically by the use of the BizTalk Server. Customer needs specifically increased after November 2005, when the company started TESCO Direct, to start delivering non-food products.

Network
Wireless LAN Technology

TESCO has been using Wireless LAN Technology

They use all wireless network components like routers, Wavelink
networking kit and network components.

Wireless network has different short comings and these days wireless products are inexpensive and ubiquitous but at the same time wireless network has many problems and someone can easily configure security setting and start using setup. Securing wireless setup is an important concern. TESCO took important steps to make their network wireless with highest security.

To make wireless network work for a longer period they used IEEE 802.15.4 standard. The IEEE 802.15.4 and Zigbee have a wide range of applications, including industrial control and personal health care, computer peripherals (Jawad, 2008).

The role of policy development and cryptography techniques plus public key infrastructure (PKI), secure remote access, wireless, and virtual private networks (VPNs), Harden network devices, operating systems, spoofing and hijacking.

Problem TESCO faced with wireless network are
It slowed down Internet performance, anyone can view files on computers and spread dangerous software, he or she can monitor the Web sites visit, read e-mail and instant messages ,he can send spam or perform illegal activities with connection.

A threat to the secure data on computers comes from both inside and outside users. It may be intended or it may be unintentional and accidental. There are also passive and active threats. Passive threats are those where only secure information is released without affecting the system (Computer Security, 1998). In case of active threats, information and system both are affected (Computer Security, 1998) and this is mostly intentional.

Threats could be from hackers who masquerade for accessing secure data or spreading virus. Insider attacks could come from the loss of confidential secure data by authorized users where as outsider attacks are intentional site invasion or data access by illegitimate users. Creation of trap doors that allow unauthorized person to access information. Virus attacks that may damage important data, files and hardware. Exhaustion attacks to access passwords or any other encrypt data. Other accidental failures including hazards to equipment and systems. For e.g., power failures, rainsnowair storm, earthquakes etc.

Solutions that TESCO employed
Following techniques were used to secure wireless network
64-bit WEP was used, WPA PSK, VPA 2, never broadcast SSID, enable WPA encryption instead of WEP, and MAC filtering was used to control unauthorized access, disable remote administration, and make sure to reduce transmitter power. All the above method makes network more secure and safer.
WEP is the best solution than anything else but if TESCO also used WPA2 to change encryption once in a month so that wireless would remain secure, never connect unprotected wireless network on computer systems.

Encryption is to encode the information into an unreadable format using specific mathematical key. In this way message cannot be read in the hands of unauthorized persons. Only authorized person having the same matching key can decrypt and read the message.

TCP was designed for wired networks initially where the packet error rates were far less than what we encounter on the wireless links. The main assumption which TCP makes is that the main reason for packet loss is network congestion. Wireless losses makes TCP to think that congestion has occurred and thus the initiation of congestion control mechanism occurs, resulting into poor performance.

Network Topology
If there are multiple computers being used in an institution, they have to operate through a proper network. This network enables each computer to function to its maximum. Data that is transferred across the network is done via a hardware called the media (Network Topologies, 2008).

Network topology is the way the physical wiring of the network is done. The three network topologies that are mainly employed in companies are,
Bus  in this a terminator is used for both ends of the network, a barrel connector may be used for extension.

Star  a central hub controls all the network communications, around which all the other hubs revolve. This can be done around 100 meters from the central hub.

Ring  this arrangement is in the form of a ring, which requires a data token for permission for communication of computers.

The TESCO company comprises a variety of departments, which are essential for running a smooth networking system. This enables prevention from fraud, especially, which is feared by many companies. If there is occurrence of failure of any program, there should be an alternative access which reduces chances of productivity being reduced.

If the star topology is employed in the company, maximum gains can be achieved, by one hub providing communication to all other hubs linked. The star topology provides expandability and matters can be dealt with ease using this method. The functionality of the star topology depends on the number of hubs attached, which usually are 24 in number (Hallberg, 2005).

There is a great advantage to the star typology, that if only ten ports are attached to the hub, then two hubs can be joined on further requirement of ports. This is because if there are ten ports then only ten devices can be attached for continuous access. This prevents the shutting down of the entire network in case of a mishap.

There is a range of cables that can be used in the star typology, among which the fiber cables are of significance. According to Kozel, Art and Armas, Ruben, (2005) Fiber cabling is used to enhance performance over short distances as well. This cabling involves speedy actions independent of the distances.

It will prove cost effective and efficient to employ the star topology in the organization, to achieve the networking goal set.

ServerThese needs were to be met by using Microsoft BizTalk Server 2006 and Microsoft SQL Server 2005.  For data, fixed and mobile telecommunications, TESCO signed up a deal with Cables  Wireless, to get connected to all chains around the world, under a single IP network.

Social Networking Sites
I.i Introduction
Since their introduction to the mainstream media in the world wide web, social networking web sites have proliferated the Internet, spreading like digital wildfire, drawing in more and more people to the allure of social connectivity between people who could be friends who have long been out of touch, or just people looking to find new friends, possibly those of which may share a certain common interest with them as well as ways to cash in on the digital market that is the Internet. Many of those who subscribe to this sort of online activity have begun to inculcate these practices into their daily routines, ritualistically checking their site activities, updating and modifying their site pages.

As of this writing, there are currently hundreds and hundreds of online social networking sites and the number continues to grow by the day and while the features remain consistent among these websites, their audiences and cultures range widely. There are a multitude of these existing social network sites that cater to the strengthening of development of the then already existing social groups or networks, taking them to a digital platform conveniently accessible from anywhere with Internet connection, while others give people the opportunity to acquaint themselves with other individuals who may share their interests, ideals, and activities, or may just happen to be offering goods or services that they may currently be in the market for.

From wholesome, friendly sites such as Friendster and Facebook, to online adult communities such as Fetlife, to professional and business networking sites such as LinkedIn and Yelp, Inc., social networking sites strongly continue to deliver the power of connectivity and convenience that the Internet has been putting into the hands of the masses since it first became a mainstream medium.

This growing trend has caused many researchers and academic scholars to devote their time and attention to the study of this relatively young and blooming trend, employing extensive research and studies as to what effects these social networking sites may have on culture, and likewise the effects that culture may have on the development of these social networking sites as well.

I.ii History
Social Networking sites have long existed even before the immense popularity websites today such as FaceBook and MySpace are experiencing today. Before it turned out to be one of the most influential and commercialized entertainment and information media that it is today, the Internet was a media accessible only to a privileged few. Granted, the formation of the Internet was to create a digital ground for communication and networking, but due to the limited accessibility to computers, as well as the social connotation that these new machines were for select few individuals   namely of the highly intellectual, socially awkward archetype colloquially known as nerds.

Eventually though, connectivity and interactivity on computer networks began to flourish, kicking off with the Bulletin Board System or BBS, which allowed the download of files or programs from a central system, as well as the posting of messages for other users. Soon after, CompuServe began to follow suit, this time providing a more interactive way for users to connect by means of providing access to community forums   a form of communication present until today.

One of the best examples of the first computer networks that spawned what modern social networking is today is America Online or AOL. Considered by many as an earlier form of the Internet, America Online featured user-created networks or communities, even allowing members to create their own member profiles as well as view those of others. Soon after, the Internet was born and families rushed to get computers in their households.

During the mid 90s, early versions of what we now know as Social Networking sites began to slowly make their names in the Internet. Sites such as Classmates.com, a segment of United Online, sought to reconnect long-lost classmates, providing a means for digital reunions. The idea of reconnecting with old acquaintances was an immediate hit, allowing batchmates from highschool, college, and even former workmates and those in the military to satisfy their curiosities on whatever happened to their former colleagues as well as provide the opportunity to personally catch up with them (United Online 2010).

Soon after, sites sprang up to develop networks which centered on specific demographics. Among the earliest were Asian Avenue   now known as AsianAve.com   a site where Asians can meet fellow Asians living in America (AsianAve 2010) BlackPlanet.com, which is a site for the American Black community which allows discussions in forums, profile customization, and opportunities to meet up with other African-Americans (BlackPlanet 2010) meanwhile Migente.com much like the earlier mentioned sites, focused on the Latino   American communities (MiGente 2010), all of which are successful Social Networking sites that live to this day.

At the dawn of the new millennium, social networking finally made it big with the launch of Friendster.com. Friendster capitalized on featuring a degree of separation concept which showed how to individuals were connected (Friendster 2010). Users were able to map how they are connected to other users who they were not directly  friends  with on the network. After only three years since its launch, Friendster already had over three million subscribers. Eventually though, it grew less popular in the Western regions while still maintaining a solid fanbase in Asia as of writing. Friendster was among the early networking sites that catered to the young and trendy, as computers and the Internet became more and more accessible.

Taking on a more professional tone of networking, LinkedIn launched with entrepreneurs and businesspeople in mind. Creating a network for professionals who seek to get in touch with other professionals - be they in the same field or otherwise   LinkedIn provided a means for online businesses or even just businesses who rely on online resources to thrive (LinkedIn 2010). This proved a successful alternative to the trendy and casual social networking sites that were making the rounds at the time. Where Friendster excelled at keeping friends and acquaintances connected, LinkedIn provided business-minded individuals a means to let their businesses   online and in the real world   thrive. As of writing, LinkedIn currently boasts over 65 million users.

Currently leading the pack of social networking sites, Facebook launched in 2004 as a network for Harvard and only went public in 2006. Much is still argued as to what it is about facebook that attracts so many, with debate points leading to the easily accessible features as well as its obviously successful name recall. In its profile page, it claims to aim to  give people the power to share and make the world more open and connected.  (Facebook 2010) a goal which is often the credo for most any social networking site, and yet it is facebook that remains the most popular site on the planet.

I.iii Social Networks and Women
Studies in the developments of social networking sites have been conducted recently to determine the demographics of which these sites are more popular with. The findings are that women outnumber men on most categories of subscribers. This despite the fact that technology is commonly perceived as a field dominated by males. The number of women frequenting social networking sites continues to rise, making a significant impact on what was perceived as the  Gender Digital Divide  where males are seen to be more promiscuous in terms of computers.

Studies show that women are currently at the forefront of the social networking revolution that has been taking the Internet by storm for the past few years. Outnumbering many in almost all demographics in every social networking site, more and more women turn to social networking sites as of late and continue to have a higher growth rate than men. In a recent article in Forbes, pertaining to the Gender Digital Divide, women were reported to be enjoying different activities on the World Wide Web as those being enjoyed by males (Goudreau 2010).

Being the majority of subscribers to the major social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, Flickr, and Bebo, the difference on preference shows itself opposite the sites where the majority of users are male namely LinkedIn, YouTube, and Digg. The initial observation is that men are more inclined to frequent content-based websites as well as promotional websites.

According to professor Sherry Perlmutter Bowen at the Villanova University in Pennsylvania in the same Forbes article, it is the early way boys and girls are raised that lead to differences such as these. The difference in the environment and culture of which how boys and girls are raised is what leads to different norms and behavior wherein boys grow up competing and comparing themselves with others, working for success while girls learn to build connections and relationships by means of sharing social information. (Bowen 2010). This is possibly why women tend to dominate the social dimension of the Internet while men are more inclined to go for the competitive side of it. Despite these facts, it is obvious that the resulting divide between men and women affect cultures as well, pertaining to effects on trends and the ease of which ideas are communicated, influencing decisions and the like.

Gender
As general as these effects on culture may be, it remains that among the most affected sectors of social network sites are women. Pertaining to the infamous Gender Digital Divide, women are seen to be one of the disadvantaged in terms of computers or computer-related issues. This stems from the findings regarding the digital divide as, according to Psychology Professor Joel Cooper from Princeton University,  a problem of computer anxiety whose roots are deep in socialization patterns of boys and girls and that interact with the stereotype of computers as toys for boys.  stated Cooper (Cooper 2006).

On the matter of Gender, women have long been at a disadvantage to most topics especially when it came to matters of performance. Women have always suffered from the social stigma that they are purportedly inferior to men. This misconstrued perception on the female of the species has led to their efforts to have the world - not just the men, as some women are reported to accept this societal prejudice   understand the capacities ad capabilities of women in relation to those of men and the human race as a whole.

Cooper made mention in his journal article that the growing digital divide on gender has been a wedge that is most often overlooked, which leads to women being disadvantaged in life as modern society turns to rely on computers more and more. (Cooper 2006) While the computer is continued to be perceived as a toy for boys, the lackluster interest shown by females towards computers early on in life continues to grow and grow as time goes by and leads to inadequacies that would require further conditioning as compared to boys, creating a more challenging world for women in this age where computer literacy is one of the most prominent requirements in securing a job.

The continuing observance of sexes in marketing proves to a point that man and woman inherently have different preferences, so much so that it remains a determining factor in marketing that may be able to determine the success or failure of a product or service being marketed. According to Doctor Steven John Simon of the Florida International University, in his article in The Data Base for Advances in Information Systems entitled  The Impact of Culture and Gender on Web Sites An Empirical Study , gender plays a major role in market segmentation due to its variables that effectively meet successful implementation requirements such as its ease of identification, and the accessibility of its segmentation as well as ease of profitability due to its large segments. (Simon 2001) This obvious distinction between male and female preferences is substantial proof of the effects of gender on cultural development, which - on the topic of gender roles in the computer age   leads to the divide which puts women into a disadvantage.

The history of women and the Information and Communications Technology industry is one that has been riddled with criticism since it was first observed and brought to attention. Appropriating the information systems theory of the Technology Acceptance Model or TAM, understanding the fundamental differences and similarities of genders plays a significant role in decision making. Preferences may attribute to integral decision making factors in the Technology Acceptance Model such as how a person believes a certain technology may help enhance the individuals performance of tasks, as well as how much effort a person would have to exert in order to efficiently utilize the said technology. These factors, as referred to in the TAM as the  Perceived Usefulness  and  Perceived Ease Of Use  respectively, are key components that play major parts in the influencing of individuals to acquiesce to the growing role of technology in todays modern times. Due to the differences observed between men and women in these fields, with women showing less favorable results, it is logical to conclude that there is in fact a gender gap in technology   a facet of modern culture that often goes overlooked.

Despite these overwhelming facts and figures, recent studies have shown that the rate at which women are subscribing to online Social Networking Sites continue to grow by the day, at a steadily increasing rate. According to recent studies conducted by Inside Facebook, an independent division of the Inside Network, women currently outnumber men in every demographic on Facebook, consisting of 56.2 of Facebooks US audience as of February 2nd, 2009. It listed the 18   25 year-old age group as the largest demographic of Facebook users, totaling to 19,319,820 users with women outnumbering the male audience by 1,791,620 at 10,409,700 users listed in the US alone (Inside Facebook 2009).

Back in July 29, 2008, San Francisco based startup RapLeaf released data citing that for all social networks, women outnumber men for those in the age bracket of 14 to 34 years of age, while men outnumbered women in the 35 and above demographic (RapLeaf 2008). This could be due to the fact that childrens exposure to computers are getting earlier and earlier as technology progresses and this could lead to females overcoming their anxiety over computers at a much earlier age, possibly even surpassing that of males. If the Gender Digital Divide showed the difference in preference between men and women with regards to computers, the introduction of the Internet changed that with the sudden rise in female users.

Age
As technology progresses, more and more people are being exposed to computers at n early age. It used to be that computers were exclusively used only for processing large amounts of data, a technology reserved only for those who need it but nowadays, most households are in possession or have access to a computer. Even students have turned to computers for the basic needs of completing their school assignments. Due to the popularity of the technology, use of computers have widened from the professional, to the casual, and even down to the recreational. No longer exclusively for work, computers can now be seen everywhere, from offices to homes to shops. This proliferation of modern technology made it possible for children to get an early start on their computer education.

Along with the appeal of gaming on computers, social networking is also one of the major factors as to why the computers suddenly piqued the interest of the youth of today, most especially women. The appeal of online connectivity is the idea of keeping in touch with friends who are far away, because it s cheaper to send an email rather than to call the person. Studies have shown that women, more often than men, use the internet not only for research and games women today use the internet to communicate with friends more than men. Their presence in the digital world is also not one of little circumstance, as social network site developers have been creating wholesome and fun environments in the form of social networks to allow for them to have fun and experience the each others company without living their comfort zones.

Focusing mainly on games whilst featuring member profile customization and searching, sites have aimed towards young women have started to crawl out of the woodwork. Websites such as ClubPenguin.com offer wholesome fun while providing a level of interactivity that would entice young women to join them. It launched in October of 2005 and has captured the hearts of the young women as well as the women whose hearts are still of kids (Club Penguin 2010). Other sites such as GaiaOnline.com and Habbo.Com allow for deeper customization features to truly personalize their online counterparts or  avatars  (GaiaOnline 2010) (Habbo 2010). This goes to show just how much a market the female computer users are.

On the other end of the spectrum are social networking sites for the elderly. Proving that the older generation is not to be left out in the online revolution, sites for the elderly have been developed to showcase features that would help the elderly adapt to todays modern times.

A recent study by Inside Facebook also showed that as of February 2 2009, the fastest growing demographic on Facebook was the 55 year old and above women category which grew by 175.3, overshadowing the males of the same age bracket which only had a growth of 137.8 as form September 2007 to February 2009 (Inside Facebook 2009).

Social Networking for the elderly is also seen as an effective means to combat feelings of inadequacy and loneliness in general in older people but is more prominent for old women, as it answers the social needs of people which is a factor that gets more and more inconvenient as people grow older. To allow for the elderly to remain in touch with their friends and families (who have most likely shifted their interactions to the much convenient digital realm), sites have been focusing on making their interfaces much easier to comprehend for the elderly. Among the more prominent sites is Jive, developed b Ben Arent which aims to provide hardware as well as software to allow for elderly technophobes to keep up and stay in touch with the modern families of today (Arent 2010) .

One thing of note about the social media is that with its continued rise in popularity, the contradiction between society and technology is being breached by breaking the traditional perception of technology being dominated by men, specifically of the more mature bracket. The prominence of both ends of the age spectrum goes to show the broadening of the online social media, alleviating the polarization between technophobes and techies which leads to a common ground for everyone which is important in todays modern age of computers.

That said, the technological revolution we are all experiencing is bringing mostly everyone on equal stances on the modernization of the world we live in, breaking the cultural barriers of age, gender, and location, as people of all age and culture are given a means to voice out their concerns, feelings, or anything else that they may want to get off of their chests, providing a great means for catharsis which helps in intrapersonal development as well as in developing social skills.

Culture
Undoubtedly, all these empirical evidences would somehow lead to effects on global culture, as the Internet is a factor that is not tied solely to any one country. Studies show findings not only for online cultures but also in the development of real life cultures which exist outside of the Internet.

Take for example the effects of social networking on women. Although the earlier notion was that of technology being something that males, rather than females would be more inclined to take up, leaving females at a disadvantage, the sudden outnumbering of women over men in terms of social networking has shown that the Gender Digital Divide is something that has been overcome in a way, as women are more likely to work with computers nowadays than before. The Gender Digital Divide has definitely been narrowed down, from the old days of men dominating the computer industry, to today where man and woman are of equal footing with each other in terms of technical knowhow and capability, albeit of different preferences.

The Internet itself has led to many influences in real world cultures as it has helped speed up the passing along of information,allowing people from the other side of the world the opportunity to influence those on the other side not only in decision making but also in cultural trends, technological advancements, thoughts and philosophies, concepts, ideas, visual arts, music, literature given the appropriate circumstances, the possibilities are enough to completely overhaul certain pre-existing cultures.

The same can be said of the other way around, wherein it is the culture in the real world that affects how people of different demographics, particularly women, behave and conduct themselves in terms of their activities on the World Wide Web, thus affecting the development of Cyberculture as well. As earlier stated in this literature review, the way boys and girls are raised differently directly affects the development of a person and how he or should would live out his or her life and make his or her decisions, thus affecting an individuals decision making on the Internet as well.

In terms of market structure and development in relation to culture, the online culture of the Internet is perceived as a new means to communicate, not much different from TV, radio, and newspapers, wherein popular shows, segments, or in the case of the Internet, websites, are flocked by consumer companies looking to advertise themselves to a larger audience depending on their target customers this on top of the perception of the Internet itself as a product of the Information and Communications Technology industry and in itself , a marketable product that stands as a product of substantially profitable interest.

According to the studies conducted by Geert Hofstede, a professor of psychology in the Maastricht University. In the Netherlands, Internet culture, or Cyberculture as it is more commonly known, derives from the traditional connotations of culture, albeit in a more loosely based context as it is contributed upon by users of the Internet who, as we all know, may come from any part of the planet that may have Internet access. This new form of culture is one that is considered to be the only global culture by some and is one of the most influential cultures of all time.

Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions
The word  culture  typically has different uses but for the purposes of this paper, we would refer to the common connotation of the word which pertains to a group of objectives, values, attitudes and traits as basically defined by communities, organizations, groups, or institutions. Eventually evolving into a study or analysis of these shared traits, experts and professionals were developed to devote their time and efforts into the study of culture and how it affects people and society and is turn affected by different factors.

With the latest trends of technological advancements, computers have successfully bridged the distance gap by providing successful two-way means of accessing and sharing information, denizens of the digital world have proceeded to unwittingly create their own specific culture them in being a group created their own traits and values.

Geert Hofstede, an expert on cultural matters as a professor in the Maastricht University in Netherlands, defined culture in his website first as  civilization  which encompasses manners, education, arts and crafts. The second definition is a derivative of social anthropology, although had recently developed a more distinct connotation that refers too the way people act, feel, and think, denoting a commonality in how minds work in distinguishing people of a group or category from another (Hofstede 2010). This may refer to countries, regions, jobs, organizations, institutions, ethnicities, even genders.

Focusing the paper on gender as a culture, we analyze the effects of this specific culture with regards to the recent developments of the demographic on social networking systems, as well as the effects of their participation in this current online trend on themselves as a culture as well as the pre-existing cultures that they may be a part of. We do this by basing the studies and findings on Geert Hofstedes model of cultural dimensions and applying it as a means of analyzing our subject.

Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions are ideas developed by Hofstede himself based on cultural differences between many different countries on a global scope. These studies combined to create independent dimensions of national culture differences. Although these are based on national cultures, we will apply these dimensions to the global community that is the Internet to see its effects on the culture of women and social networking in general.

Power Distance Dimension
The first Hofsedes dimension discusses how those of lesser power accept the unequal distribution of power. In cases of countries and institutions, those who are generally less powerful accept inequality as a fact of life. Tackling inequality as viewed from those of lesser power, which in most cases is the majority of the organization or countrys population, this dimension is suggestive that an institutions views on inequality is promulgated by the followers just as much as by their rulers.

Hypothesis
Despite their numbers, women out of power generally accept their status as natural law.

In applying this dimension to our studies, we can say that since majority of women on the Internet   despite their strength in numbers growing rapidly, are generally more accepting of their lesser roles if that is truly the case and could possibly still be attributed to the patriarchal society that majority of the world still lives in.

Individualism Dimension
This part focuses on the definitive traits of that considers a person an individual as opposed to being part of a collective. A culture with high individualism rates would generally have looser ties when compared to those with lower individuality dimension rates or those of high collectivism rates. This strongly distinguishes an individual from those around him or her as having high individualism in an institution or organization or even in a country would generally mean for people to be looking out mainly for themselves or those of immediate relations or proximity. Collectivism on the other hand would mean for a person to be primarily faithful to that group which he is birthed into, such as families or faiths, often with unwavering loyalty.

Hypothesis
The fact that more women are getting into social networking sites is evidence to both the individuality and collectivity of womens culture.

In their subscription to social networking sites, women are the current leaders in profile customization, showcasing diversity in their persona. The fact that they are into these social networking sites however, allow them to form bonds with each other, and as  a natural instinct to women, tend to protect and support each other hence fueling collectivism among them.

Masculinity Dimension
Hofstedes third dimension seeks to define a cultures distribution of roles according to gender. According to the studies, mens values typically differ from one nation to another, often with dimensions of competitiveness and assertion of ones self as opposed to softer, more caring values implicated by women. Unsurprisingly, womens values are also more general and differ less from one country to another due to this fact.

Hypothesis
The difference in values between men and women is what leads to women dominating the social networking scene.

Perhaps the most applicable of Hofstedes Dimensions to this study, the obviously high rate of femininity dimension in the culture of social networking women is what leads to their prominence in the said activity as it is in generally in their culture as women to share and care as well as build a lasting community   features that are showcased in most social networking sites.

Uncertainty Avoidance
This dimension tackles that of which society - or in some cases - organizations and institutions situate themselves in dealing with matters that are as of the moment beyond their understanding. It features how a culture would react towards unstructured occurrences, approximating their comfortability with regards to topics such as faith.

Hypothesis
Women in general are more prepared and tend to act accordingly when faced with situations that are out of the norm.

Quite possibly one of the less applicable of Hofstedes dimension in our study of culture and how it affects women in social networking as its effects on both male and female are pretty much the same leaving us with the outcome of which is the minimal effects it has on women and social networking. Although the female culture in general and the way their values were inculcated in them could quite possibly be the reason for womens easier adaptation to online changes.

Long -Term Orientation Dimension
This dimension is what importance a certain culture gives to its future, as opposed to its present as well as its past. Those oriented with the short term dimension of culture tend to be more focused on attitudes that are possibly influenced with the past or present, focusing on their immediate concerns, while long term dimension oriented cultures tend to focus their actions and decisions on those that will affect them in the long run, looking to lasting resolutions even if they may be far from the present.

Hypothesis
The possible focus of women on the long term orientation dimension has possibly led to current trends in social networking culture by women such as those of building relationships and sharing to the world therefore leading to their prominence in the field of  social networking sites.

These dimensions are of particular interest as it would allow us to properly analyze the effects that culture may  have on women that led to the development of their prominence in social networking sites. In effect this research model also works a basis for finding out what factors led to the sudden dominance of women in this field and possibly predict the succeeding trends in the digital world in relation to gender, specifically with women.

Kids are very attracted to visual treats. Therefore, the usual trend in kids menus are usually bright and catchy themes. The most colorful, the better. Famous characters such as hello kitty, dora, and spongebob are the usual subjects used to tweak a certain product. This is a great way to attract the attention of kids because they watch these characters everyday and are very entertained by them. Since they are recognized by kids anywhere, I think that it is a good idea to make a character that would be distinct and will embody the restaurant that whenever kids see it, they will definitely recognize it and think of the restaurant.  For Rusty Schooner, my idea of a kids menu would give the effect that a kid would undergo an undersea adventure and will feature a female diver serving as the guide. My female diver will exude charm as I will design it with a cute face and form together with other sea creatures who will look very friendly and fun. Putting in a little bit of dialogue and maybe putting in names of creatures would add to the informative aspect of the menu. This would be a good technique and will make the menu cohesive to the coastal atmosphere of the restaurant. Since kids love to brag, the pieces of information they can get from the menu is something that they can share with other kids and by word of mouth, more kids would want to eat food out of the cool menu. In addition, a mascot of the female diver will be a fun addition and selling accessories and stuff that are inspired by the restaurants products and characters will increase sales and improve marketing.

To Marcia, Dora the Explorer is such a big hit with kids. Not only do kids learn from it, but they are very entertained. The illsutrations are bright and colorful and I think that this adds a lot to the appeal. Your idea is agreeable since I think that visual stimulation is very important and before you can educate, you need to catch the attention of the subject first and foremost.

To Laneet, I think that the idea of an interaction with a kid and the parents during eating time is really good. It can be a venue for a parent to teach the kid a thing or two while bonding. However, you have to make sure that the games should be changed every now and then because loyal customers who keep coming back may tire of the same stuff when there are not new ones.In addition, the game should not take up a lot of time as it will keep the kids attention away from eating.

The Chrysler Corporation was founded in 1925 by Mr. Walter P. Chrysler. The company expanded in 1928 by buying Dodge and simultaneously creating two new divisions namely, DeSoto and Plymouth. In the year 1987 Chrysler acquired the American Motors Corporation and its renowned brand Jeep. Later, in 1998 the company merged with Daimler-Benz Corporation and became DaimlerChrysler Motors Company LLC until 2007 (Chrysler Company History ). The American equity firm Cerberus acquired an 80.1 stake of the Chrysler LLC in 2007 thus leaving only 19.9 to Daimler AG.

Chrysler has been an epitome of innovation in the past. It was the first company to introduce four wheel hydraulic brakes in 1924 and rubber engine mounts in 1926. It has also taken a very scientific approach to designing cars by keeping in mind the effects of aerodynamics on automobile performance.

Chrysler has different brands that cater to the needs of different people across the world. It has distinct brands for different purposes, for passenger cars and minivans the corporation manufactures Chrysler and Dodge, for trucks and commercial vehicles they manufacture RAM while for SUVs they manufacture Jeep. Thus, they have a distinct brand for virtually all driving vehicles categories.
Although the company houses so many different brands it suffered during the current financial meltdown and was unable to keep the sales going at a reasonable level. Hence, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in April 2009 and planned to get into a partnership with Italian automobile makers Fiat. The plan proposed that Fiat will initially hold a 20 stake while it can later go up to as much as 51 provided that it could meet up with the financial and development goals of the company.
Chrysler has added a number of unique technological features in its cars recently. These features are aimed at improving the driving experience as well as making the cars more fuel efficient.

Latest technologies for Chrysler LLC in 2009 include an in-vehicle wireless internet connectivity system which uses EVDO and 1xRTT system. The system also provides connectivity to multiple users in the car through Ethernet as well as wireless. The dual connectivity system allows passenger to be connected to the internet no matter where they go.

Chrysler has introduced iDFSO (Interactive Decel Fuel Shut Off) which is software that detects the motion of the car while it is decelerating and cuts the fuel supply to the engine to save on the gas consumption. This system will be added to almost all the upcoming models of the cars in 2009 and 2010.

Chrysler has improvised its engine technology and will be developing a more powerful and fuel efficient version of its renowned Hemi engine. This technology is aimed at improving the fuel economy and delivering an improvement of more than 40.

Theres a technology called blind spot monitoring which Chrysler has introduced. This aims to aid the driver while switching lanes or if he is being passed by unseen vehicles. The system uses ultra-wideband radar sensors for detection and the driver is notified through icons on side mirrors and audio alerts.

Another interesting technology is Rear Cross Path. RCP seeks to assist drivers while they are moving their cars out of a parking lot and there is heavy traffic behind them. The system warns the driver reversing the car about the presence of other drivers in the lane. The warning is shown through icon and an alert through a chime.

Internet censorship is the process of enacting controls to suppress the publishing of or access to information on the World Wide Web in the same way that rules can exist within a country to censor the publishing of certain information. However, internet censorship, due to limitations on censorship technologies, may not prevent access to information stored in servers outside the servers that exist outside the borders of the country implementing the censorship policy (Kitazume, 2010). In the Peoples Republic of China, information related to Tibetan and Taiwanese independence, police brutality, pornography, freedom of speech and expression plus the Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989 is censored by the government (Wines, 2010). Google aims at providing information to all users of the internet, and this has been the source of conflict between the corporation and the Chinese government.

Technology used in China to block internet access
The Chinese government has put up an elaborate technical system to block access to the categories of information listed above. Below is a brief description of the main technologies employed.

Uniform Resource Location (URL) Internet Filtering This is a technology in which internet content requested by an internet user is scanned by servers located at internet gateways for targeted key words (Thompson, 2006). For example, the key words Tiananmen Riots, if detected in content requested by a user, will lead to the whole webpage being blocked. This protocol works in the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and may be circumvented using encryption protocols or escaped characters in the page.

Internet Protocol (IP) Blocking This is the use of codes to deny access to IP addresses containing material that is censored (Wines, 2010). All IP-based internet data transfer protocols including hypertext (HTTP), file transfer protocol (FTP) and POP are all affected by this censorship technology. Google had allocated additional internet protocol addresses to prevent IP-based blocking but the block was redefined to cover even the new addresses and IPs (Wines, 2010).

Domain Name System (DNS) Filtering This technology involves not resolving domain names or returning incorrect IP addresses requested by a user of the internet (Thompson, 2006). IP-based internet protocols like HTTP, FTP, POP and others are all affected by this censorship technology.
China blocks searches bearing the names of political leaders but the problem with the system is that the system is in some ways so crude that it blocks harmless content for example, typing the word Carrot while in China returns no results as the word contains a Chinese character that is also found in the surname of the President of the republic, Hu Jintao (Branigan, 2010). This leads to limitations in the access to information. With censorship efforts being stepped up, several websites and blogs have been shut down because of publicly speaking up about corruption, the manufacture of substandard goods and contaminated baby and human foodstuffs (Branigan, 2010).

Google-China row the cause
The Peoples Republic of China, due to its tough censoring policy, restricts the nature of information a person can access from the internet. The levels of censorship vary from one population group or another but ultimately affect the entire population. For example, residential places and restaurants that serve people who are not Chinese nationals have more relaxed censorship but in some public schools, there is prevention in the use of search engines (Wong, 2010).

Google Corporation runs the largest search engine and advocates for a free internet but the Chinese governments policy of censorship affects its business in the country. The search engine had imposed upon itself some censorship measures for its Chinese site HYPERLINK httpwww.google.cnwww.google.cn but in March of this year, it stopped censoring search results in China (Wines, 2010).

Google reneged on an earlier agreement it had signed with the Chinese government to censor search results in China in line with the Governments censorship policy after complaining of cyber attacks the corporation said they were coming from the Chinese government (Wong, 2010). These attacks are alleged to have targeted Google and other IT companies and are believed to have originated from within the borders of China. They resulted in loss of information on the part of Google, and are said to have targeted the e-mail addresses of human rights activists hosted by Googles Gmail. As a consequence of this attack, Google announced that it would have to review its Chinese operations in China.

The Chinese government in turn accused Google having intricate ties with the United States government and of providing information on searches conducted in China to intelligence agencies in the United States (Branigan, 2010). Google protested the interference of its operations and moved its operations from mainland China to Hong Kong. Commentators hailed the move by Google as plausible, having the opinion that at last a multinational corporation was finally stepping up to protect its consumers basic human rights and freedoms saying that internet censoring in the Peoples Republic of China violates peoples right to information.


Consequences of the Google-China row
Googles capacity for business
Google is the most popular search engine in the world but the Chinese online search market is dominated by Baidu. However, Google derives almost 2 percent of its 24 billion U.S dollars in annual revenue from the Chinese market. In addition to this, the Chinese IT market is the most rapidly growing market in the world (Reuters, 2010). If Google were to fully withdraw from China, its long-term strategy for building the broadest search engine and information database will be significantly compromised (Reuters, 2010).

The social impact
The internet is rapidly becoming the preferred source of information for many Chinese citizens. In fact, internet usage in the Peoples Republic of China is expanding at a rate much higher than her economic growth. Over 100 million users conduct business on the internet, and over 400 million people, especially the younger generation, use the internet on a regular basis (Kitazume, 2010). The internet has therefore revolutionized the way people gain access to news and information bearing in mind that the news appear on the internet are very different from what state and other conventional media line television and newspapers report. The withdrawal of Google will thus be a victory for the suppressors of free information movement and by extension democracy and other human rights.

Conclusion
After the exit of Google from the Chinese market, Baidu, Chinas leading search engine has emerged to be a big winner. Its market domination of the Chinese market rose from 59 percent to over 64 percent, and so has its revenue (Reuters, 2010). Google is still however selling advertisements in mainland China through its Hong Kong-based site HYPERLINK httpwww.google.hkwww.google.hk, but the content of the latter makes use of simplified characters of the Chinese language which may lead to erosion in the quality of information.

Bell laboratories is a company in the telecommunications industry. It has done several innovations which have created success in the modern communication industry in the global market. The company employs a team of researchers to develop innovative technologies about telecommunications. Bell laboratories has existed in the market due to its innovative products as well as ethical management of the organization. Several strategies have been adopted to expand the operations of the company including establishing mergers with other companies in the industry. This has increased access to new markets as well as development of new innovative products (Ganapati, 2008).

History of the company
According to Bruce and Bell (1990, pg. 34) Bell Laboratories (also known as Bell Labs and formerly known as ATT Bell Laboratories and Bell Telephone Laboratories) is the research and development organization of Alcatel-Lucent and previously of the American Telephone  Telegraph Company (ATT). Alexander Graham Bell was the founder of the company in 1877. The company gained monopoly in the telecommunication industry of U.S in the early 20th century. In 1970s it became the largest telecommunication company in the world. The headquarters of the company are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey. The company started by researching how to record and transmit sound. Several research and development centers of the company have been established in many countries of the world. To enhance research and education, Bell used most of its profits to create innovative products which would be used by all categories of people (Ganapati, 2008).

Incorporation into ATT
In 1925 Western Electric Research Laboratories and part of the engineering department of the American Telephone  Telegraph Company (ATT) were consolidated to form Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., as a separate entity (Bruce and Bell, 1990, pg. 45). Bell labs was later owned in partnership by ATT and Western Electric Company. The company did several projects including U.S. government work, consultancy work for Bell Telephone Companies and many others. In 1984 the Federal government forced ATT to separate itself from the activities of Bellcore. Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., was then renamed ATT Bell Laboratories, Inc., and became a wholly owned company of the new ATT Technologies unit, the former Western Electric (Ganapati, 2008, para. 31).

Lucent Technologies merged with Alcatel in 2006. Lucent Technologies was the mother company to Bell Technologies. Alcatel-Lucent Inc. started its operations as a single company. This merger has been of great success to the company since many technologies have been developed and more products have been produced. In December 2007, it was announced that the former Lucent Bell Laboratories and the former Alcatel Research and Innovation would be merged into one organization under the name of Bell Laboratories (Ganapati, 2008, para. 25).

Bell Labs entry technologies
Bell Laboratories ventured into the production of several technologies such as radio astronomy, the transistor, the laser, information theory, the UNIX operating system, and the C programming language Bruce and Bell (1990, pg. 46). The company has been awarded seven Nobel Prizes for the innovative technologies in the telecommunications industry. Bell Labs employs researchers to find out innovative technologies about telecommunication programs.  The strong RD department of the company has been very strong and has promoted the advancement of modern technologies.  The company has produced several Nobel Prize winners due to its effective use of technology and the excellent innovative products made by the team of professionals. Computer inventions have been done by the development of technologies in computing. The team of researchers has done several innovations about integrating computer knowledge into the telecommunications industry. For example, In 1970 Dennis Ritchie developed the compiled C programming language as a replacement for the interpretive B for use in writing the UNIX operating system (also developed at Bell Laboratories) Bruce and Bell (1990, pg. 54). Bell Laboratories also developed the original version of UNIX awk. The C programming language was also established by the team of experts of the company. This was an expansion of the C programming language. On August 28, 2008, Alcatel-Lucent announced it was pulling out of basic science, material physics, and semiconductor research and it will instead focus on more immediately marketable areas including networking, high-speed electronics, wireless networks, nanotechnology and software (Ganapati, 2008, para. 45). Telecommunication today has developed from the work of Bell Laboratories. Most of the innovative ideas in the communication industry have their origin from the organization.

Conclusion
Bell Laboratories has succeeded in the improvement of the telecommunication industry. The company has done several innovations which have contributed to the modern communication industry. The company has been awarded several prizes for its innovative technologies. It has also merged with several companies to enhance production of innovative products in the market. The company has integrated computer knowledge into the production of innovation telecommunication sector. The modern state of the telecommunication owes its background from Bell Laboratories. More technologies are being developed and the future of the company is speculated to expand the telecommunication and computing industry. Efficient management has contributed to the success of the organization.

From time immemorial, man has strived to make his live comfortable and this has resulted into technological advances. There is no doubt that technology has been beneficial to the society. Despite the benefits associated with technology, its onset has brought more harm than good.

The negatives of technological advancement are many. There has been an increased stress level among people in various nations due to much workload. Today, communication technology has led to increased rates of interference with the peoples private lives. Moreover, most cities in the world are characterized by traffic congestion as a result of an improved transport technology. Nuclear technology advancements have evoked great fear in the nations as there has been an increased level of terrorist attacks. Additionally, technology has given rise to cyber crime, which has proved a great challenge to the authorities as it is difficult to trace the offenders. Lastly, the innocence and health of the children has been snatched away by technology as a result of exposure to adult materials and replacement of physical exercises respectively.

Despite the negatives, the world cannot accurately function without technology. Shortcuts have been created in the workplaces as a result of technology. For example phones, cars and calculators have made work easier and faster. Virtually all diseases present in the world would be epidemics as there would not be advances in the medical field. Communication has been made easier, which has turned the world into a global village. Transport has also become very efficient as there are computer managed vehicles. With technology, people can easily access several luxuries like television, movies and refrigerators.

It is evident that more harm has resulted due to technology with the disadvantages outweighing the benefits. However, since it not practical to survive in the world without any technological invention, it is the responsibility of man to ensure that he minimizes the harm caused by technology.

1.0. Introduction
1.1. Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to develop a training strategy for managing change associated with the implementation of the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system. Change management is a critical aspect in ensuring that change processes are carried out effectively. Organisational change management training is also aimed at ensuring that employees are fully appreciative of the potential offered by the new ERP system and therefore mitigating the risks of resistance. The training will also seek to ensure that employees are well versed with the functionalities offered by the ERP systems and improve their knowledge of the hew ERP system so as to improve their experiences and interaction with the ERP system. This goes a long way in improving overall employee experience when interacting with the ERP system.

1.2. Objective
The paper is being written to describe how the training will be organised, the entities that will be involved in the training programs, the relevance of training in ensuring organisational change management and measures that will be put in place to improve training. This paper will provided in-depth understanding of the overall significance of organisational change management training and the relevance of the strategies that will be included in the training program. The paper will also provide a documentation of the structure of the training strategy.

1.3. Scope
The training strategy is aimed at facilitating the implementation of the ERP system and minimising the associated risk of resistance. The training program is therefore optimised for WaterPump World and will involve all employees that will interact with the ERP system. The training will focus on ensuring that employees knowledge of the new system interface is improved, providing employees with a guideline on best practices in interacting with the ERP system and outlining the benefits to WaterPump World and employees associated with the implementation of the new system. Furthermore, the training program will provide a platform through which employees can raise questions that will be addressed on ERP system and the specific system that has been adopted by WaterPump World.

1.4. Audience
The executive management of WaterPump World is the main audience being targeted by the report. The report not only highlights the importance of training to change management in ERP implementation but also highlights the specific approach that will be adopted in training. The report seeks the audience of the executive management in ensuring that the ERP system implementation is supported by relevant training strategies.

1.5. The Approach
A collaborative approach will be adopted in carrying out the training. In as much as the training offers the organisation an opportunity to ensure that issues that may hinder the implementation of the ERP system are addressed and employees are empowered, it is an opportunity for improving organisational human resource capability which is vital for overall organisational development (Anderson,  Ackerman-Anderson, 2001). A collaborative approach will ensure that the involvement of different entities in the training program helps ensure that varied technical and people issues that may affect the implementation of the ERP system are adequately addressed. Furthermore, the ASAP implementation methodology will be considered in designing the training strategy.

2.0. Organisational Change management
Organisational change managements are a set of organisational strategies and processes that are aimed at facilitating the process of changing within an organisation. It is noteworthy that though organisations are in a state of constant change, there are some projects or endeavours that result in considerable change in organisational operations (Harigopal, 2006). Such changes have to be complimented by relevant strategies aimed at dealing with the practical and psychological implications on organisational processes and the employees. The set of strategies that organisations implement to ensure that change processes are well implemented contribute to organisational change management.

WaterPump World is a company that has been operational since 1989. In the twenty one years that it has been operational, the company is expected to have developed a clear set of expectations, norms and values that guide interaction between employees. These organisational culture considerations are vital in the implementation of the ERP system. The implementation of the ERP system is likely to affect interaction between employees and may therefore have implications on the organisational culture which presents a risk of resistance among the employees (Seruca, Cordeiro,  Hammoudi, 2006). Organisational change management strategies would help WaterPump World prepare its employees for the changes and mitigate the risk of resistance thus facilitate the implementation of the new ERP system.

WaterPump World has over 5000 staff members that will be affected by the implementation of the ERP system. It is noteworthy that the company has already established that the employees are characterised by different levels of expertise in IT. The hierarchical organisational structure adopted by the organisation also implies that there is likely to be varied views on the need of a new ERP system and the functionalities that such a system should offer (Cawsey,  Deszca, 2007).

Training is an important aspect in facilitating organisational change management. It is noteworthy that in the case of implementation of an ERP system by WaterPump World, a new system will be in place and the users will be required to interact with it in carrying out their daily operations. The functionalities offered by the ERP system are greater and more advanced than those offered by the system WaterPump World currently employs. Since the implementation of the ERP system is aimed at improving the efficiency of WaterPump World operations, there is need to ensure that employees can use the ERP system effectively. Training comes in handy in providing employees with the technical expertise required to be fully productive when interacting with the ERP system (Cawsey,  Deszca, 2007). Moreover, training is an avenue through which the employees can gain insight on the advantages associated with the implementation of the ERP system (Cook, Macaulay,  Coldicott, 2004). Such knowledge shapes employees perception of the ERP system which places them in a better frame of mind to harness the benefits associated with the implementation of the ERP system. Therefore, training helps reduce resistance and facilitates attainment of the objectives in the implementation of the ERP system (Cawsey,  Deszca, 2007). Therefore training is part of organisational change management since it facilitates the attainment of the change management goals.

2.1. Training Strategy
Cooperation and collaboration between users and training experts will also be expected in training. This collaboration allows for employees to raise and share their fears on the implementation of the ERP system in a platform that will ensure that they are promptly addressed. The Questions-answers database can be used as an avenue through which the users can assess the knowledge that they have so far gained.

2.1.1. Training Plan
Interaction with the ERP system is a continuous process and so is organisational human resource development. This implies that the training strategies have to be continuous since WaterPump World has to be operational. Furthermore, change in technology implies that the ERP system may require upgrades which translate to training requirements. The existence of different computer literacy levels within WaterPump World and in interaction with the ERP system implies that training should involve determination of the skills that the employees posses and the skills required. Understanding what the employees lack in their IT skill profile is vital in determining aspects that they need to focus on in training.

The next step is creating a schedule for training of users at different user levels. Employees will be trained so that they can meet the minimum IT skills required at their user level. Furthermore, developing a syllabus and training program for the different user groups will help in improving coordination of the classes. The syllabus will have clearly defined learning outcomes and an outline of the strategies that will be used for assessment. In training, it is important to start from what the users know as progress is made towards what they need to know depending on their user level (Khan, 2002).

PhaseProcessesExpectationsPhase IDetermination of the skills held by the employees.
Allocating different users classes depending on their skill deficiency.Four different classes with different learning needsPhase IIDeveloping a timetable for training in the different classes
Developing a syllabus for the different users levels or classes A timetable
SyllabiPhase IIIActual training
Use of ASAP tools
Sharing Experiences and  analysis of casesConformance to time table
Completion of the SyllabiPhase IVEvaluation of theoretical knowledge gained by employees
Evaluation of practical knowledge gained by the employees
Determination of improvements in usability of the ERP systemGain in general, practical and technical knowledge on ERP
Increased usability of the ERP system
Every phase has deliverables that must be met. Phase I is generally aimed at ensuring that employees are grouped into classes that will cater for their skill needs. Phase II involves designing syllabi and timetable that will ensure that the training objectives are driven at and training runs smoothly. Phase III involves ensuring that employees gain skills and knowledge on ERP use through execution of the syllabi. Phase IV involves assessment of skills gained by the employees and the efficacy of the training course. This phase aims at ensuring that training is actually beneficial on the employees and the organisation as a whole.

2.1.2. Structure of Training

2.1.3. Stakeholders needs Analysis
Top level managers, middle level managers, sales staff, operational managers, end users of the system and contract workers in various departments that interact with the ER system are the key stakeholders that will be considered in designing the training strategy. The organisational structure and the business models are tools that will be used in determining stakeholders training needs. The HR department will also be consulted in detailing any additional training employees have undergone. This process will minimise the risk of subjectivity and improve the relevance of the syllabi to the needs of employees in different classes or user levels.

2.1.4. Skills Audit
ASAP framework allows for the inclusion of a question-answer database that can be used to facilitate training and address queries raised by employees at different levels (Lau, 2005). It is noteworthy that the skills audits will involve determination of the theoretical and practical knowledge gained by the employees. Time framed written tests and functionalities that employees interact with in the new ERP system will be used to gauge the theoretical skills they have gained. Reports on usability of the ERP system by the system analyst will be used to monitor and audit practical skill acquisition among employees. These reports will reflect areas that need to be addressed in training. Practical assessments and case analysis related to the issues affecting employees at a given level may also be used to assess the applicability of knowledge that they have gained in the training sessions

2.1.5. Training assessment tool
Pre-defined documentation templates that are provided by ASAP can be used to support role-orientation which is a basis for the training plan. Business Process Master List (BPML) and issues databases and knowledge corner are some other tools offered by the ASAP framework that can be used by trainees to gauge the skills they have gained (Nemati,  Barko, 2004). The set deliverables or expectations in phase three will be considered in determining the efficiency of training. The syllabus is an important tool in highlighting the expectations in each session and for the entire course. By aiding the assessment of the attainment of session objectives and course objectives, the syllabus will help in highlighting the training areas that need to be improved.

Erythropoietin is a protein or hormone that is involved in the production of red blood cells (Wen et al. 1994). Erythropoietin performs the same activity as the cytokine for erythrocyte precursors in the bone marrow. It is bound to its receptor on the surface of progenitor cells in bone marrow and other hematopoietic tissues to do its function. This report describes the structural and functional relationship of erythropoietin molecule in the process of Red Blood Cells (RBC) production. It starts with the definition and history of discovery of erythropoietin followed by description of its biological functions. Erythropoietins principal function is to preserve red blood cells from apoptosis. According to the Medical dictionary (2010), apoptosis is the time when a cell is dying. It begins when the cell leaves the cell cycle for the final time and ends when the cell dies and it supports the survival of red blood cells. Besides that, it plays a vital role in the development of precursor red blood cells by assisting with a variety of growth factors included in the process.

Erythropoietins structure plays a crucial role in the production of red blood cells. It is bound to its cognate receptor on erythroid progenitors in the bone marrow to rescue these cells from apoptosis, which allows them to proliferate and differentiate into circulating erythrocytes. A mutagenesis experiment is discussed in brief to understand the method of determining structure-function relationship of erythropoietin molecule. In the end, the effect of carbohydrate on the structure and stability of erythropoietin is discussed.

INTRODUCTION
Protein and its types
In an era of scientific and medical breakthroughs our fascination with knowing more about the formation and function of certain cells have become great from scientific and medical points of view. Researchers believe that since Proteins are crucial organic components to life, and therefore we should endeavour to know more about the structure and function of proteins. It is well known that proteins in general have several fundamental functions in all organisms processes. For instance, proteins distributed between building blocks combine with other substances to create the cell from which we are created (Lesk, 2010).  Moreover, the functions of proteins vary, some proteins act as catalysts such as enzymes which accelerate the biochemical reactions to maintain the cell to be active and alive yet others assist cells to communicate or to transfer or store important substances from macromolecule to electrons such as oxygen in haemoglobin, and to construct the complex merge of tissues to build the creatures bodies. However, the focus of this analysis is on erythropoietin proteins, understanding the function and structures of erythropoietins is important because they have the ability to modulate unfolding process for development (Lesk, 2010).  They consist of the same basic building block, twenty different amino acids joined together with covalently by peptide bond.

Researchers who study this type of proteins classify them into two major classes the first being  simple proteins, which constitute amino acids only. The second group is conjugated proteins, which consist of amino acids and other chemical groups, whether organic or inorganic groups. Conjugated proteins include glycoprotein, which contain carbohydrates lipoproteins, which contain lipids and nucleoproteins, which contain nucleic acids. An active protein has four different structures. This means proteins not only have primary, unstructured, chain structures but also they have a highly organized three dimensional structure which make it easier to predict their functions (Nelson  Cox, 2008). Thus, the aim of this paper is two-fold firstly, the paper examines both the structure and function of erythropoietin (EPO), which is deemed to be one of the most important glycoproteins. In addition, some of mutagenesis studies and the affect of carbohydrate on the erythropoietin structure will be discussed in this paper.

Erythropoietin (EPO)
Erythropoietin is known as the major hormone that controls erythrocyte differentiation and it also plays an essential role in protection of the physiological level of erythrocyte circulating mass. In addition, erythropoietin is formed by peri tubular capillary endothelial cell in the kidney (Wen et al. 1994). It is produced by peritubular cells in adult renal cortex as well, with a tiny quantity in the liver in foetus. Moreover, there is an extensive utilization of the recombinant human erythropoietin in treat certain diseases such as anaemia, which has registered over 2 billion through the sale of this drug. The molecular mass of erythropoietin is 30.4 kDa which is determined by sedimentation equilibrium, a technique used to find out macromolecule molecular mass (Lappin, et al., 2000). (Wen, et al. 1994. To understand the study of Erythropoietin, it is important that we first the history of the protein since it was discovered.

History
In 1906, a French professor of medicine in Paris who suggested that, hormones are responsible for the production of red blood cells. Eva Bonsdorff and other researchers invented the name of erythropoietin in 1948.  Additional experiments showed that erythropoietin was a substance that circulates in the blood which was able to stimulate red blood cell production and increase in hematocrit (the volume of blood that the red blood cells occupy) (Medical Dictionary, 2010).

Furthermore, in 1970s the isolation of this substance was proved as erythropoietin, which opened doors for the application of erythropoietin in treatment purposes for diseases like anaemia. Finally, native human erythropoietin purified and its gene cloned in 1977 and 1985 respectively (Jelkmann, 2007).

Since the middle of 1980s the primary structure of human Erythropoietin, old-world Monkey, and mouse has been detected followed by rat erythropoietin gene sequence. It was found that, human Erythropoietin consists of 193 amino acid and 27 amino acid leader sequence which is cleaved to produce 166 amino acids. Glycoslyation arises in N-linked at 24, 38, and 83 Aspargin residue, and the glycoslyation of O-linked occurs at serine 126. A 166 Arginine residue is eliminated in C-terminal by an intercellular Carboxypeptidase (Lappin, et al., 2000).  Human EPO consists of four cysteine associated together with disulfide bonds, that link Cysteine29 with Cysteine 33 and Cysteine 7 with Cysteine 161. Both these bonds are significant for biological activity, which will be covered below (Lappin  Winter, et al., 2000).

Berndt and other researches detected the secondary structure of human EPO, they found that the human erythropoietin secondary structure has a four helical bundle in the company of intron and exon boundaries positioned in non-helical region (Lappin  Winter, et al., 2000).  In addition, it is predicted that this protein has  folding class( folding is a scientific classification of amino acids) (Boissel, et al., 1993). Lin et al. in 1985 isolated and characterized the human erythropoietin gene from a genomic phage library. They demonstrated that the gene for EPO encoded the production of erythropoietin in mammalian cells that is biologically active in vivo (vivo means experimenting a live organism or animal) and in vitro (vitro means experimenting with a partially dead organism or a completely dead organism). Thereafter, their research opened up the door for the industrial production of recombinant erythropoietin for treatment of anaemia patients. More recently, a protein called Novel Erythropoiesis-Stimulating Protein (NESP) has been produced which has shown anti-anaemic capabilities similar to erythropoietin but has a longer terminal half-life than erythropoietin. To maintain normal haemoglobin levels, a lower dose of NESP is needed by chronic renal failure patients. The next section will discuss how the Erythropoietin functions in biological processes.

Biological functions of Erythropoietin
Erythropoietin is the most important hormone that has a main function in supporting and regulating the formation of red blood cells (RBC) in that it promotes the survival of the red blood cells by protection of the cells through apoptosis (Youssoufian, et al., 1991). It differs from the other growth factors how Because it is mainly made in a single organ, which is the kidney, and in small amounts in the liver (Boissel, 1993). In addition, it is involved in the feedback control system. It also influences the maturity of erythroid cells, and affects the increase and the activities of other cells. Because of hypoxia (lack of enough oxygen supply), raising the hormone quantity increases the production level of red blood cells. As a result of hyperoxia (in excess supply of oxygen), the amount of erythropoietin will decrease which leads to a decline of the formation of red blood cells (Youssoufian, et al. 1991). Furthermore, there is another biological purpose of erythropoietin, which includes its role in the brains response to any neuronal injury and in the wound healing process.

The Erythropoietin Pathway Retrieved from  HYPERLINK httpwww.sabiosciences.compathway.phpsnErythropoietin_Pathway httpwww.sabiosciences.compathway.phpsnErythropoietin_Pathway
The erythropoietin starts its function from the Epo Receptor where there is a binding to its receptor. The receptor then forms homodimers and eventually undergoes phosphorylation through the association and interaction with tyrosine kinase JAK2. the tyrosine residues then activate some adaptors that include the STAT5(Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription factor-5), PI3K (Phosphoinositide-3 Kinase), SHIP (SH2-containing Inositol Phosphatase), the tyrosine phosphatase SHP1 and SHP2 and the ERKs (Extracellular Signal Regulated Kinases), JNK (Jun N-terminal Kinases) and p38 MAPK (Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase) (SA Biosciences 2010).  
STAT5 act as a transcription factor, binds to nuclear DNA carrying the signal from the membrane to the nucleus (Ref.3).

DISCUSSION
Determination of three-dimensional structure of Erythropoietin
The structure of Erythropoietin can be best determined by computer-based predictions. Computer based prediction of three dimensional structure can be divided into three stages. At first stage, primary amino acid sequence of erythropoietin is determined. From this sequence, secondary structure is predicted using optical measurements. With the knowledge of disulfide bonds, these secondary structural elements are then packed into a set of alternative tertiary structures (Johnson, et al., 1998). An analysis of Erythropoietin by circular dichroism method revealed around 50 alpha-helix but no detectable beta-sheet in the tertiary structure. Thus, the number of possible arrangements can be reduced using knowledge of preferred helix-helix packed geometries and the need for globular structure to form a hydrophobic core. The presumed tertiary structure is then distinguished by standard force field calculations. (Johnson, et al., 1998).

(Wen et al., 1994) Fig2 Primary and secondary structure of human Erythropoietin.
In this diagram, the single letters that is A,B,C and D show the predicted alpha-helices. The single letter codes show the sequence of amino acid of an exported protein. An asteric represents the N-linked glycosylation sites. The shaded parts show the nonhelical parts of the EPO protein and can be deleted with no significant loss of specific bioactivity (Wen et al., 1994).

Description of Erythropoietin structure
(Wen et al. 1994) Fig3 Model of the three-dimensional structure of erythropoietin.
The three diagrams (A, B and C) presented by Boissel and other researchers in 1993, clearly demonstrate the structures of EPO. Although, these models are based on computer model predictions they are useful representations in understanding how EPO is structured.

Diagram A is a Ribbon diagram which represents predicted erythropoietin tertiary structure. There are four alpha-helices in the structure, which are labeled from A to D (in magenta color) (Boissel et al., 1993). Loops interconnect the helices and they are named accordingly. There are two regions with an extended structure, which could form hydrogen bonds between Loop AB and Loop CD (in cyan color) (Boissel et al., 1993). The two loops are short fragments of amino acids, which interact with each other to shape antiparallel -sheet, the first -sheet (residues 39-41) and the second -sheet (residues 133-135) (Rashid, et al. 1998). Additionally, there are N- and O-glycosylation sites that are indicated in green and blue, respectively (see Fig 3). Disulfide bonds bridge residues 29-33 in Loop AB, and 7-161 on the N-terminal side of Helix A and the C-terminal side of Helix D (see Fig 4). The loop tracing is shown which does not represent predicted coordinates. (Boissel, et al., 1993).

Moreover, diagram B, consists of a schematic representation of erythropoietins primary structure which depicts predicted up-up-down-down orientation of the four anti-parallel alpha-helices (boxes with arrowhead in Fig 3). The large size of the two interconnecting loops AB and CD strongly suggests this folding pattern. There is a predicted short region of beta-sheet, which is delineated by the dashed rectangle. There are N-glycosylation sites, which are represented by the dotted diamonds, and also the O-glycosylation sites are present which are represented by the dashed oval. The locations of the two-disulfide bridges are also shown between the two cysteines (see in Fig 3) (Boissel et al., 1993).

Finally, diagram C, shows a cross-section of the erythropoietin molecule at the level of four alpha-helices. There are helical wheel projections, which are viewed from the NH  end of each helix. In addition, there are hydrophobic residues, which are localized inside the globular structure, are indicated by filled circles. Furthermore, there are charged and neutral residues (open and gray circles, respectively) that are exposed at the surface of the molecule (see Fig 3)(Boissel et al., 1993).

(Wen et al., 1994) Fig4 Model of EPO three-dimensional structure
Structural and functional relationship of Erythropoietin
Understanding the structural and functional relationship of erythropoietin is a crucial factor. Erythropoietins structure participates crucially in its function of red blood cells production. Erythropoietin binds to its cognate receptor on erythroid progenitors in the bone marrow to rescue these cells from apoptosis, which allows them to proliferate and differentiate into circulating erythrocytes. It stimulates cells by joining and orientating two cell-surface erythropoietin receptors (EPORs), which activate an intracellular phosphorylation cascade (Rashid, et al., 1998).

The study of the structure-function relation of the erythropoietin
Results from various experiments have shown that a restricted number of residues on helices A, C, and D are involved in erythropoietins biological activity. It has been proposed that one functional domain encompassing Arg 14, Val 11 and Tyr 15 of helix A, Arg 103 and Ser 104 and Ser 100 of helix C, also Asn 147, Arg 150, Gly 151, and Leu 155 of helix D. Moreover, Leu 108 perhaps exists in the predicted C-D loop (Wen, et al. 1994). Arg 14 is predicted to be within close proximity of Ser 104 and Arg 103 (Wen, et al. 1994).

Another study was carried out to determined the crystal structure of erythropoietin- (EPObp)2 complex at 1.9  from two crystals forms, it showed that the crystal structure imposes erythropoietin a unique 120 angular relationship and orientation to obtain an optimal signalling through intracellular kinase pathways (Rashid, et al. 1998).

Besides that, erythropoietin-EPObp structure consists of a short amino-terminal helix (approximately 15 residues) followed by two - sandwich domains, D1 (N-terminal) and D2 (carboxy-terminal), both containing of 100 residues approximately. Residues 9-22 in N-terminal helix of EPObp structures is pushed into the elbow produced by the D1 and D2 domains (Sasaki, et al., 2000). Furthermore, motif positioned close to the transmembrane domain, Trp-Ser-X-Trp-Ser (WSXWS) motif (residues 209-213XGlu) in D2 (Sasaki, et al., 2000). Leu 18 makes hydrophobic contact with Phe 29, Leu 27, Leu 120, and Phe 208, in the side chin of helix residue of EPObp.  If there is any modification in WSXWS sequence that will disrupt erythropoietin binding and receptor signalling. It is detected that WSXWS motif is essential for the folding and transport of receptor to the cell surface. Moreover, the efficiency of the function is improved by introducing an A211E mutation. The Glu 211 side chin of WSXWS motif of erythropoietin-(EPObp)2 complex is closest to Leu 17 of the N-terminal receptor helix. In addition, Trp 209 and Trp 212 side chains residues sandwich the hydrophobic Arg 197 side chin in the receptor fold, Ser 210 and Ser 213 within hydrogen-bonding distance of Ala 198 and Val 196 respectively. It is concluded that from the interaction of WSXWS motif with the N-terminal helix and -sheet residues Val 196, Arg 197 and Ala 198 in erythropoietin- (EPObp) 2 complex the N-terminal helix is vital in the biological stabilization of EPOR folding. Because of Gly 151 in D-helix which is important in the structural role of erythropoietin in forming a kink, the side chain of Ly 152 produce hydrophobic contact with Val 63, Trp 51 and Phe 148 in the protein core (Rashid, et al. 1998).

Further studies found that a two mutation causes loss bioactivity of erythropoietin which included the replacement of Ala at 151 or 152 positions and the other mutation to acidic residues. However, there is no influenced on the function by substitute Lys 20 (basic residues) with Ala (Rashid, et al. 1998).

FIG Schematic presentation of receptors for single cysteine-scanning mutagenesis
fig
Mutagenesis study
Mutagenesis studies have been performed to identify functionally important domains on the surface of erythropoietin molecule. One of studies prepared a number of amino acids to replace them at 51 conserved sites. This study preserved that -helical structure was permitted by Ala substitution. In COS1 and COS7 cells a high level of natural and mutant erythropoietin cDNAs were rapidly expressed (Boissel, et al., 1993). In addition, three of erythropoietin-responsive cells were utilized to examine the biological activity of wild and mutant types of erythropoietin, which are the murine HCD57 erythroleukemia cell line primary murine, erythroid spleen cells and the human UT7-EPO leukaemia cell line (Boissel, et al., 1993). A mutation applied on helix A by replacing Arg 14 with Ala, this results a significantly decrease in the biological activity, however by substituting with carbohydrates produced a loss of the specific bioactivity totally. In the same way, in helix C, the substitution of Arg 103 with Ala was absenting the biological function completely. On one hand, contrast, by replacing Ser 104 and Leu 108 with Ala also produce a decline in the bioactivity (Boissel, et al., 1993). On the other hand, on helix D the replacement of Ala at three close positions introduced a rose of erythropoietin bioactivity. Such mutagenesis studies have indicated functionally essential domains on the surface of the erythropoietin molecule (Boissel, et al., 1993).

The effect of carbohydrate on structure and stability of Erythropoietin
Erythropoietin has three N-linked and one O-linked carbohydrate, with average carbohydrate content about 40. The carbohydrate plays a significant role in the biological activities of erythropoietin. Carbohydrate may also play a role in the structure and stability of erythropoietin (Owers et al., 1991). Studies on a number of different glycosylated proteins have been done in an attempt to explain the role of carbohydrate in maintaining the structure and stability of these proteins. Results from these studies suggest that the specific effect of carbohydrate depends on the protein involved (Owers et al., 1991).

Conclusion
With this report, we are able to know that EPOs structure has a role in its function and therefore we have learned that any protein in the human body is always influenced by its structure. The sequence of the amino acids and the helices that are found in the protein describe its main function which is the production of red blood cells. Some factors also influence its functions such as the presence of oxygen in the system. The study of structure-function of elements is an important aspect of scientific research as through the information gathered, we are able to understand how certain body elements work and how their structures affect their functions.