Technology

Computer Forensic
1- Different communication technologies are emerging with each passing day and thus are made to make communication safer, efficient, secure and reliable. As with all the other things, these technologies have a good side and a bad side. The good side is the usual use of these technologies by general people to go about their daily affairs. The bad side is where certain elements use those technologies to indulge into illegal activities and also to channelize their illicit activities through various channels and people.

The current available technologies have unleashed a new era in the criminal communication activities. Gone are the days when criminals and drug dealers would use secret meeting spots to discuss their future course of action. Nowadays email, mobile phones and the internet has made possible long distance and anonymous communication.

The drug dealer that has been arrested could have used various forms of technologies to communicate with his co-conspirator. Firstly the most common mode of communication for this drug dealer could be the email. Email is fast, cheap and efficient. The drug dealer could have used different emails to communicate with his accomplices and this could have helped him remain aloof from the law enforcement agencies. Apart form this within emails the drug dealer could have used some sort of encryption technology.

There are many different kinds of encryption software which are widely available on the internet. Through that software one can encrypt a message so that it could only be decrypted through a special electronic key which the other person must possess (RIDER, Barry A.K., 2001).

The specific problem that email poses to the investigator is that emails are hard to track as the drug dealer could use multiple email accounts. Thus this leads to a failure in the tracking of those emails. Having said that, email combined with encryption techniques makes the life miserable for the investigators.

The solution for the investigator is to track the emails using specific keywords. For instance an investigator investigating about the emails sent by a drug dealer known as X123 could setup keyword filters for that specific name which could thus help to narrow down the required emails.

Other than this anonymous chat groups are perfect meeting spots for drug dealers, who can stay anonymous and thus effectively communicate and engage in discussions on their plans (KERBS, Robert W., 2005). These chat rooms also provide a public forum for these people to group together and plan out their next strategy.

The specific problem that these chat rooms pose to the investigators is that chat rooms are anonymous and free. Therefore anyone can join and engage in a private conversation. Thus monitoring of these chat rooms is a big issue for the authorities.

The solution for the investigators is that they could setup BOTs on the public chat rooms. These BOTs are basically computers who act as normal user and thus can keep track on the activity of the different participant within a specific channel. Through these BOTs, investigators could analyze the chat room activity and thus can narrow down their focus on suspected users.

Another technology that the drug dealer could have been using is mobile phone. The drug dealer could have used mobile phones to keep in touch with his accomplices and thus this would have helped him getting key information regarding a certain deal or consignment.

Apart form this, with the advent of prepaid mobile phone packages, it has become very easy for virtually anyone to own and use a mobile phone. Although this has increased the relative use of the mobile phones altogether, but the side effects of this is that many criminals and drug dealers use and rely on this piece of technology to go around their daily business affairs (KENDALL, Raymond, 1999).

The specific problem that mobile phones pose to the investigation is that as mobiles are wireless, a drug dealer could email or call his accomplice from any possible place and after fulfilling that objective, he could throw that device away and thus destroy the evidence with it. Moreover the multiple connections being used by a criminal could also pose problems for the investigator to track the specific number.

The best possible solution for the forensic investigator is to run a network voice scan. This would involve the use of wireless network carriers database to check and trace the specific calls through the voice patterns of the criminal. This would help in tracing down of the specific mobile number which could then lead to the specific location of that criminal.

Virtual Private Network or VPN is a private network through which two or more computers could be connected. Moreover such a system ensures that all the communication between those computers would be totally private and discreet. The main difference in VPN and conventional networks is that VPN uses the internet to make a virtual network which acts and behaves like a normal network.
Although these networks are normally used by businesses and corporations but drug dealers can also use these kinds of networks to collaborate and share vital pieces of information which could lead to a big drug deal. Other than this, VPN allows the drug dealer to effectively share his resources to the other dealers and thus interact in real time (STEVE HAWKINS, David C. Yen, David C. Chou, 2000).

Other than this, VPN allows different people from around the world to gather and share their information. Imagine a drug dealer in America collaborating with the dealers in Russia and Hong Kong and thus effectively negotiating the prices and delivery terms.

The specific problem for the investigators is that penetrating through the VPN session is a long and time consuming task. Moreover the end results obtained might not give the full picture and so this could further delay the investigation.

The best possible solution for the investigators is to adopt a range of hacking and cracking tools to effectively ensure that the VPN system is brought down and thus the investigators could then analyze the evidence retrieved.

Mobile text messaging is a quick and easy way to send a text message to a certain individual or a group. The phenomenon has taken the world by storm and thus is growing on an increasing scale. The drug dealers could have used this technology to communicate with his co conspirator. He would have known about some vital information regarding for instance a drug shipment through this mode.
The specific problem it poses to the forensic investigator is that although mobile text messages are traceable but the drug dealer could have been using code language which might be hard to decrypt. Drug dealers use these languages to ensure that their message is only understood by their co-conspirators.

The best possible solution for the investigators is that they could hire a team of expert in criminal language. These people would be able to decode those messages and thus could help lead the investigation further.

Another key technology that the drug dealer could have used is the Instant Messaging (IM) service on the internet. The IM is a service through which one can send and receive instant messages over the internet to the other person. The drug dealer could have used this technology to communicate with his co-conspirator. Moreover, the drug dealer could have sent or received various files through which he could have planned out his next assignment or crime. Instant messaging could also have allowed the drug dealer to have conversation at the same time with a lot of people. Through this, they could share information and send or receive various plans based on which they would work.

The specific problem that IM poses to the investigators is that tracking instant message chat sessions is a difficult task. The reason being that there are a number of services offering IM and thus the investigators would have to run a check on each of those services which would be a tedious task.
The solution for the forensic investigator in resolving the problem is that they can trace out the chat logs and thus run a keyword search on it. Once the keyword search would have narrowed down the specific chat logs from the server, the investigator could manually sort out those logs to acquire the specific information.

Moreover, the drug dealer could have used radios or walkie-talkies to communicate with one another. The major advantages of such radios are that one can easily communicate with one another without additional cost and thus is a cheap mode of communication. Moreover this mode of communication does not rely on any third party device and is simple a two way communication.

This is a benefit for the drug dealers as it ensures privacy and total control over the communication. Thus the drug dealer could have used this mode of communication to communicate and collaborate with his co-conspirator and thus to engage in illegal activities. Although there is always the chance of anyone snooping in on them through wireless scanners but still the advantages are enough for the drug dealers to use them (LYMAN, Micheal D, 2006).

The specific problem for the forensic investigator is that such a technology leaves no trace or any evidence. Once the conversation has taken place it cannot be retrieved back and thus is lost forever.
The solution to this problem is that the forensic investigators could setup scanning devices which could effectively snoop over the conversation. This would ensure that they are able to retrieve the specific information and thus that could help in the further investigation.

 The drug dealers could also use social networking websites to communicate with each other. These websites allow anyone to make up a profile and thus through that profile one can interact with many friends and peers. Moreover the new generations of social networking websites allow people to send and receive files, engage in online chat and send and receive private messages to one another.

Thus these websites are a haven for the drug dealers as they provide all the possible modes of communication under one roof and thus offer complete privacy to engage in their activities (RESSLER, Steve, 2006). Apart from this, these websites offer collaborative tools that could help a drug dealer plan out his next move or strategy with his other accomplices.

The specific problem for the forensic investigators is that social networking websites are hard to track down. The reason being that with an easy way to setup an anonymous profile, anyone can do it and thus the forensic investigators have a hard time to track the profiles which had been used by the drug dealers.

The best possible solution for the investigators is to setup fake profiles on such websites and track down the activities of such suspected criminals. This way they could keep an eye on the activities of the suspects and thus could predict their next move.

Thus these were the technologies that the suspected drug dealer could have used to communicate and collaborate with his co-conspirators.

2- Information can be placed in various places within a laptops file system. A laptops file system consists of various levels of folders. Within those folders one can save numerous files. Having such a vast and complex file system, it really gives a lot of options for a criminal to hide his work from unwanted eyes. Moreover the same system can give a lot of headaches to an investigator who would have to look deep within the file system to filter out the required pieces of information.

Firstly, information could be saved within the hidden folders which would hide the information from a general user. Hidden folders basically are normal folders within a file system but their existence is not shown in the general directory structure. This basically hides a folder and thus by only giving a certain command, one is able to retrieve the contents from the folder.

Thus such type of system gives excellent opportunity for a criminal to hide sensitive information which might be related to some deal or criminal plan (IRONS, Alastair, 2006). Moreover by hiding the information in the hidden folders, a normal computer user might not be able to retrieve that specific piece of information. Thus hidden folders are one of the places where evidences might be found to a forensic investigator investigating a case.

Deleted files and internet cache are other places where evidences might be found relating to some criminal activity. Whenever internet is used on any computer through a browser or an email client, it leaves a certain trail in terms of file logs, cookies, and the cache files. These files are basically the temporary downloaded files that the computer downloads temporarily while a person uses the internet.

Thus once a user finishes his work these files can be deleted. However in normal circumstances, many of these internet files are on default set to be deleted after 30 days or so. Moreover even if the user deletes the files on purpose, they are still present on the file system and thus can be later on traced by a professional.

Other than this, these internet files can reveal a lot of information about the surfing habits of a user. The technology has become so advanced that by the help of specialized software, one can even see which sites the user had been visiting and what chat rooms he has gone to. Moreover the people with whom he might have chatted can also come up through proper searching.

Thus the internet files and cache are a very important place from where the investigators can expect to crop up the relevant information. As the internet usage is increasing with each passing day, thus it is evident that a laptop has been connected to the internet thereby leaving the traces in terms of internet cache and files (ANDERSON, Ross, 1995).

Another place where the forensic investigators can find information is within the registry of the operating system. An operating systems registry can contain a lot of information that could hold potential evidence or aid in some other aspects of forensic analysis. (Assuming that the laptop was using Microsoft Windows as its operating system we would discuss the Windows Registry). The windows registry is the central repository for configuration data which is stored in a systematic manner. All the software details and user accounts are stored in this part of the operating system and thus it acts as a central database. A windows registry can hold a lot of clues and specific information that might give the forensic investigator some lead in the investigation.

The registry can hold information regarding the number of programs that were installed in the computer. This information is vital as through this the investigator will know whether the user was using some illegal or unlawful software such as hacking tools which might have been used to commit further crimes (GERMAN, Peter M., 1999). Apart from this the registry can bring up the list of users which had used the laptop. Through this the investigator could get to know the names of those users and thus could further move on with his investigation. The registry keeps track of the smallest change happening in the laptop. For instance a list of wireless Wi-Fi access points can be retrieved from the registry. This list contains all the names of the access points which have been connected to the laptop. Such information could help the investigator track down the location of those Wi-Fi routers and thus could help in the investigation.

Apart from this the registry could track down the individual users activities and thus this could also help in the investigation. The registry also saves the names of the computers that were connected in a LAN. This information is also vital as it could help the investigator to know the names of those computers and thus could help in the investigation. Furthermore, the registry also contains information regarding the list of USB devices ever connected to the computer. This list again could act as potential evidence and thus could further help in the investigation. A registry is a vast sea of data and thus it is up to a qualified investigator to properly retrieve the required information out of it.
Forensic investigators can also expect to find information within files or photos. Steganography is the science of hiding messages within the images or pictures. Although this is a very old practice but the digital age has thus given this science a new vision. Nowadays such kinds of activities are on the rise and criminals are increasingly using steganography to hide their messages or information within the pictures and thus only their co-conspirators would be able to retrieve it accordingly.

This basically posses a new challenge for the forensic investigators as retrieving the hidden messages from those pictures is a difficult task. Moreover before retrieving one has to check within which picture is the hidden message stored.

In many of the recent criminal activities around the world, steganography had been used which effectively hided maps, blueprints, photographs etc from the normal users. Moreover todays steganographic programs can effectively hide any type of binary data into nearly any type of image, audio, or video file (KER, Andrew, 2009). Moreover such software can also hide data into executable files or spam messages. This kind of flexibility is what makes steganography so problematic for the forensic investigators.

Apart from this, steganography requires highly technical skills and thus many of the criminals get away by doing such a thing as many of the investigators do not routinely check for steganography.
Other than this, another area where information could have been hidden within a laptop is the anonymous files. By just removing the file extension of any file, a laptop user can make the file to look like a system or a configuration file. Such a disguise helps the user to store whatever piece of information within that file and thus get away with hiding that information.

Other than this, such a technique is very easy to follow and many times investigators overlook such files. One way of checking for those files is by their relative size. By looking for files which are big in size and thus do not posses a file extension, an investigator can effectively trace those suspicious files. Later on those files could be analyzed by specialized programs which could then retrieve vital pieces of information from it.

Apart from this, within a laptop evidence can also be found in the deleted files on the hard disk. A computer file once deleted is moved to a new place on the hard disk. Once the file is deleted the computer makes note of that space as available and this can be overwritten by a new file. Although this might seem that the file has been lost forever but with specialized software one can retrieve that deleted file as long as it has not been overwritten. Thus while analyzing deleted files, an investigator can come across many different pieces of evidence that may help in solving the case.

Moreover these deleted files may bring up various things and information regarding how the laptop has been used. It is said that the computer is just like a tape recorder. Anything that one does on the computer is recorded and stored in some part of the overall system. Although it depends upon how experienced a user is to retrieve that kind of information but the fact is that a technical expert is able to retrieve various types of information from that raw data.

 By analyzing the overall data structure on the computer, a technical expert can filter out the required data and thus relate that data to the concerned investigation issue. Apart from this deleted files can also show a specific timeline through which an investigator can see the different activities that the computer user has been up to.

Deleted files also show specific information regarding the type of websites and the kind of information that has been exchanged from that specific computer. Other than this such files are a vital step for a criminal investigator to begin his investigation and thus to relate different sets of clues and information which may lead to further possible leads.

In making all of the above mentioned investigations care must be taken that the files are copied to another source. This would ensure that the original files are not altered and thus may not ruin the future investigation on those files. Therefore the original file system should remain intact and preserved.

Moreover evidence can also be hidden in the protected files area. These are those files which have been protected and thus a normal user cannot access them. Thus specialized software can be used to unprotect those files and thus allow unrestricted access to them. Apart from this, the investigator can also search the unallocated space of the hard disk.

This is the space which is normally unused and thus is currently not in use by the hard disk. This although does not mean that it is empty and thus it might contain files or parts that are relevant to the case. Moreover the unallocated space might include some past deleted information which might be a big lead within the investigation.

Summary  Conclusion
It can be seen that technological tools have aided these criminals in their notorious activities. These people have used these tools for their own purpose and thus have now put the investigators in a fix. By using sophisticated tools and equipments these people have managed to find new ways to communicate and interact with each other (LYMAN, Micheal D, 2006). Furthermore, new methods of communication between these criminals have made the crimes more complicated and difficult to investigate. The key technologies used by these criminals include mobile phones, email, chat rooms, instant messaging (IM), social networking websites and radios (RESSLER, Steve, 2006). By using such a vast variety of tools, these criminals have made sure that their work is completed in the most discrete and silent manner (KENDALL, Raymond, 1999).

With the laptops getting more and more complicated thus these machines can now store huge amounts of data. Drug dealers and criminals make use of such machines to aid their criminal work (GERMAN, Peter M., 1999). Information can be hidden in a number of places within a laptop so that it is secure and protected. For an investigator, there are numerous places within the laptop where they could find relevant information (KER, Andrew, 2009). These places include the operating systems registry, encrypted files, hidden files, deleted files and locked files (STEVE HAWKINS, David C. Yen, David C. Chou, 2000). Thus by properly investigating the respective parts within the laptop, an investigator can expect to find significant information. With the current pace of technological advancements newer and sophisticated tools are being made which could also help the criminals in their illegal activities (KERBS, Robert W., 2005).

Analysis
Scientists performed the study in order to clarify the nature of infection and the dominant causative pathogens for subclinical mastitis that had widely affected cows in a dairy farm in north Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The hypotheses under investigation was first, subclinical mastitis that is caused by Streptococcus canis is very rare and second, polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and PCR gene amplification methods can accurately identify species specific characteristics of Lancefield serogroup G of Streptococcus canis  bacteria.

The study involved collecting milk samples from the affected lactating cows and subjecting them to laboratory analysis. The major techniques involved phenotypic and genotypic characterization of the bacteria present in the samples. For a start, a direct microscopic count was performed to determine the somatic cells count in the sample and this was followed by culturing and sub culturing methods on various agar plates to identify the various groups of bacteria present. The agar preparations distinguished Streptococcus from Enterococcus and Staphylococcus species all of which are present in cases of subclinical mastitis. The Streptococcus canis were further subjected to biochemical and phenotypic characterization tests.  The biochemical tests revealed sensitivity and resistance to various antibiotics, and hydrolysis activities on various carbohydrates. The PCR amplification methods further revealed the phenotypic and molecular characteristics of the S. canis. First, genomic DNA extraction was performed followed by PCR amplification of the encoded 16S ribosomal RNA segment using oligonucleotide primers then the fragments restricted by RFLP enzymes to generate species specific patterns. The necessary primers were used in amplification of species specific genes and this was in line with the universal data and DNA software in gene databases. A pulsed field gel electrophoresis was carried out for macrorestriction analysis of chromosomal DNA and this revealed that the bacterial species forming the group S. canis, were closely related. The results showed that S. canis was the predominant group of species that was identified in most of the case samples and therefore this disapproved the first hypothesis that S. canis is very rare in subclinical mastitis.

However, it was noticed that this case is the largest subclinical mastitis outbreak caused by S. canis so far and this can be attributed to the high contagious ability of these species. All the same, the use of PCR amplification and RFLP analysis has been shown to accurately identify species-specific characteristics to almost 99 percent, therefore, agreeing with the second hypothesis.

The results from this study are of significance importance. The revelation of the genetic methods for species identification could point out that wrong diagnoses were being made in the past over the causative agent of subclinical mastitis, and that is why there was the speculation that S. canis is rare in subclinical mastitis. Exclusive phenotypic characterization could have limitations especially where species exhibit similar features to one another. Despite the time and high costs, future research should consider including genetic markers for all microorganisms especially the pathogenic ones to aid in accurate diagnosis of prevailing conditions. Also, the revelation that S. canis is sensitive to antibiotics such as penicillin G and amoxicillin-clavulanate can be of a great potential towards manufacture of antibiotics or vaccines that can combat the loss causing subclinical mastitis.

This article was an interesting read especially on the fact that it was very educative. The steps taken in the research are well sequenced making it easier to follow and understand. I chose this article because the research was based on a realistic case study. Diseases caused by Streptococcus are very common and this article can make a great reference for many clinical studies.

Introduction
Submaximal testing and maximal testing are two test procedures used to determine the maximum aerobic capacity of any individual. The variables used in these experiments include heart rate, height, weight, age, and gender following both protocols. The subjects include a 29-year old male and another 32-year old male. They both completed separate exercises to determine heart rates at different exercise limits and VO2max.

The purpose of this experiment was to determine the cardiovascular fitness through the use of the Astrand-Rhyming bike and Bruce treadmill.

Materials and Methods
This experiment was conducted by using two different test machines the Astrand-Rhyming bike and Bruce treadmill.

For the Astrand-Rhyming bike test, a heart rate monitor was connected to the skin of the subjects using contact gel. The subject is allowed to sit on the seat of the bike and told to begin cycling. At the end of each minute, the subjects heart rate is recorded. One of the precautions taken was to prevent the subject from talking so as not to have an upward effect on the heart rate. After the seventh minute, the subject is allowed to cool down and cycling is stopped.

The procedure for the Bruce treadmill test involves allowing the subject to walk on a treadmill. At intervals of three minutes each, the speed and incline of the treadmill are increased. The subject is made to run the test until he comes to a point where he is fatigued and cannot continue again.

Results
Data work sheet for Astrand-Rhyming bike test.
Age 29 Gender Male Height 56. Weight 160
Time (min)Heart Rate (bpm)KGKGMMIN11222.575021262.575031322.575041292.575051262.575061392.575071282.5750
Data worksheet for the Bruce Treadmill Protocol
Age 32 Gender Male Height 58 Weight 160 HR  185.46bpm
HRmax x 0.85  157.64bpm
StageTime (min)Speed (mph)GradeMETS1 0-31.7104.72 3-62.5127.03 6-93.41410.149-124.21612.9512-155.01815.0

SMV02  (Sa x 0.2)  (S x GB x 0.9)
Where Sa  speed of the treadmill in meters per minutes (26.8 meters per min)
GB  Grade ( incline) of the treadmill in decimal form
S  Sa x 0.1
SMV02 2.1708 mlkgmin SMV02 3.4443 mlkgmin
Slope (b)  0.0289 V02max  4.2378 mlkgmin

Discussion
The results of this experiment have yielded results that verify the hypothesis that cardiovascular fitness can be examined through maximal and submaximal testing. The two protocols used, Astrand-Rhyming bike test and Bruce treadmill test, have given results that can be used to measure or predict the oxygen uptake. Basically, the VO2max (rate of oxygen usage under maximal aerobic metabolism) is the parameter being used as a measure of cardiovascular fitness.

The Bruce treadmill protocol yielded a VO2max of 4.2378 mlkgmin. The VO2max gotten here is a measure of the exercise capacity of the individual being examined. The value indicates the maximal capacity of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems to respond to the stress (in this case, exercise) and supply oxygen. It means that the maximum amount of oxygen that can be released is 4.2378mlkgmin. If the individual, who has a weight of 160kg, exercises at maximum level, the maximum amount of oxygen that can be released per minute is (4.2378 x 160) 678.048 ml. This therefore means that the two systems, cardiovascular and respiratory, cannot release more than 678.048 ml of oxygen per minute. In situations or exercises that involves almost this value or more, the individual being examined here would easily go into fatigue.

The Fick equation (VO2  Cardiac Output x a-vO2 difference) allows the rate of oxygen consumption to be determined if the cardiac output (CO) and arterial-venous oxygen difference (a-vO2 diff) are known (The Cardiovascular System and Exercise, 2009). The effect of exercise on each variable of the equation is as follows. The cardiac output is a function of the heart rate and stroke volume.

During exercise, either or both of these two variables can increase, thereby causing an increase in the cardiac output. Exercise increases the difference between arterial and venous oxygen levels. During resting conditions, the difference is about 40ml of oxygen. However, once exercise commences, the diffusing capacity for oxygen increases almost three-fold. This results mainly from increased surface area of capillaries participating in the diffusion and also from a more nearly identical ventilation-perfusion ratio in the upper part of the lungs (Guyton  Hall, 2006). The end result is an increase in the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial compartment.

Apart from exercise, other factors can increase the variables of Ficks equation. Anything that would cause an excitation of the sympathetic nervous system will cause an increase in the cardiac output. Any form of increased emotion (anger, anxiety, excitement) will cause an increase in the sympathetic stimulus to the heart. This then causes an increase in the heart rate and an increase in the effectiveness of heart contraction (contractility). Prolonged stress on the heart (e.g. a long term workload) causes it to increase in size (hypertrophy), and thereby increasing its pumping effectiveness.

Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER) is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide produced divided by the volume of oxygen consumed on a total body level (Plowman  Smith, 2009). It is usually calculated using expired air. Respiratory Quotient (RQ), on the other hand, is calculated at the cellular level. It is defined as the ratio of the amount of carbon dioxide produced divided by the amount of oxygen consumed at the cellular level (Plowman  Smith, 2009). RQ can be conducted in connection with exercise tests that measure VO2max. When the RQ is 0.7, it indicates that fat stores are the only source of energy. When it is 1.0, it implies that only carbohydrate is being burned for energy. At a RQ of 0.85, it indicates that 50 fats and 50 carbohydrates are being burned. A high RQ indicates that the excess CO2 is derived from anaerobic metabolism. Even, a RQ greater than 1.1 is a criterion for a reliable maximal test. A low RQ below 0.7 means that the amount of fat being oxidized is not enough, and also there is no compensatory release of carbohydrates. Therefore, CO2 being produced is very low.

Conclusion
Submaximal and maximal testing are integral parts of medical and sports physiology. They are relatively easy to perform. The machines used are also safe, and cheap to maintain. These test modes are practical ways in which sports and health experts can measure or determine the maximum aerobic power of any person or groups of people. The reliability of the results gotten from these machines is good in comparison to protocols that involve direct testing of VO2max.

New media and modern day internet based communication have been reshaped by many websites including Facebook and Google. Google Wave is a social platform that was released for public on 30th September 2009.  Google Wave has been one of the most important releases by Google and it has been much publicized. This paper shall cover key information related to Google Wave including key terms along with detailed information.

Introduction
It has been discussed by Roche, Valdez, and Douglas, (2009) that Google Wave is a new age communication platform, based on real-time requirements of users and social networkers. Jens and Lars Rasmussen developed Google Wave in an innovative manner that can be realized by millions of users and min purpose behind inventing Google Wave was to reshape email communication.

Figure 1 Google Wave logo
Unique features found combined on this platform include email, chatting, blogging, wikis, social networking as well as project management to build an email application which is more organized in browser communication client.  Google Wave is one of the best platforms to share all kinds of files allowing chatting to join ongoing discussions. A group of friends and business partners can carry out discussions.

Figure 2 Google Wave Interface
Many innovative features have been included in Google Wave but this paper shall cover some of these.
Features of Google Wave
Single Access
It has been mentioned by Van Grove, and Horton, (2010), that in certain kinds of email applications, there is a need to log in to chatting, emailing, office applications and blogging. In contrast, Google Wave lets its users to chat, blog, and email to communicate on a single platform. Google Wave is a revolutionary email based platform that has tied all of these applications on one platform to ensure easy communication between users.

Future Generation Sci-Fi Communication
Google Wave is more than an email platform. With videos, images, rich text, as well as maps, simple email is converted into something much richer. More conversations that are dynamic are reshaped on these email platforms.

It is argued by Andres, (2010) that Wave has changes the face of communications required and demanded by customers and Wave has blurred limits of communication. Contact list building is easier. Simple dragging and dropping mechanism is applied and dragging on the contact list can ad people to contact list.

Google Wave, as announced in May 2009, is still in its preview mode for developers as newly developed platform is still in its early stages.

Real Time Communication
One of the most attractive features of Google Wave is its real timer functionality, which is not offered by other email-based communication portals. On many occasions, it is seen that people online cannot seen what the others are typing. In contrast, as argued by Holzner, (2010) that Google Wave offers flexibility in which users see what others users are typing, alphabet to alphabet and character by character. Inline commenting is added as a feature and statements that are given in by many users are supported by their avatars.

Another important feature, as highlighted by Roche, and Douglas, (2010) is a playback feature. This playback option allows new participants who have just joined to roll back conversations post by post. Google officials have added that Google Wave is one of the most promising and successful email client proving to be an answer to all demands of customers and Wave shall prove to be groundbreaking in all email clients.

Higher officials and developers at Google have defined Wave to be composed of equal parts of conversation and text. Users and individuals work on this portal in a rich multimedia environment. All is combined on one portal as users can write reports, plan events, conduct research, stay in touch with business partners in online meetings and chat with friends. Wave thereby helps its users to become informed in a creative and a collaborating manner.

Embeddability
It is argued by Crumlish, and Malone, (2009) that Google Wave can be embedded on any website including blogs. These days it needs to be seen as how Wave fits in many applications in itself as Wave has particularly overlapped many applications

Wave Continuation
It is argued by Andres, (2010) that Wave is defined as a string of instant messages and emails. Participants of Wave are notified when a new change has been introduced in a particular Wave. Search feature in a particular Wave is activated as a participant can search content within a particular wave by searching for an object. Waves generated from other emails and instant messaging portals can also be linked.

Extensions And Applications
Important feature provided by Google to its users is an easy web based access. Common features exist with Facebook or iGoogle applications as users can create many applications to be used and these applications can range from real-time bots to complex games.

Wiki Functions
Any conversation written within Google Wave can be edited and changed by another user using Google Wave as all conversations in Google Wave platform are shared between Google Wave users. Thus any information being shared can be edited and appended and comments cab be made within an ongoing conversation.

Open source
Codes being used by Google Wave is open source thereby changes are welcomed from new developers. This will ensure innovation.

Conversation Playback
Google users can playback conversations in order to see what was sent in the past.
Natural Language Usage

Spelling correction facility is provided by Google Wave for users as they type. Auto translation mode is also observed in Google Wave that can make communication even easier.

Drag And Drop File Sharing
It has been argued by Crumlish, and Malone, (2009) that there is no system of attachment in Google Wave. Files can be dragged and dropped and other viewers can simple see the file.

In addition to these, many other features have been noticed that have set Google Wave apart from other email clients. Rich text editing facility along with facility of using other gadgets can make users use Google Wave easily and in an interesting manner.

It is however in line to be realized if Google Wave is another competitor of Facebook and Twitter. Alternatively, Google Wave can be a combined unified tool standing head to head against Microsoft or Cisco.

Some criticism has been received by Google Wave showing a need of room for improvement. Goggle Wave has been defined as evolutionary rather than revolutionary. Professional networkers on Wave need much more work. It is argued that Wave is not only for social users but it is a great communication tool for business users. Chatting daily life activities is not as important as chatting online with business partners.

Terminologies in Wave
In order to understand Wave as a complete communication platform, there is a need to understand a few terminologies being used by Wave.

Figure 3 Waves and Wavelets in Wave
Roche, Valdez, and Douglas, (2009) argue that Wave is a word referring to continuous communication and threaded conversations. Participants of these waves can be group of persons or robots. Wave is more like an entire history of instant messaging saved in history. Any topic discussed in a single chat or conversation is referred to as a wave.

Wavelet is a terminology also used for an ongoing conversation. However, wavelet is a subset of a larger ongoing conversation. Wavelet can be referred to as a single instant messaging conversation which in most cases is a part of great chat history. In this case a unique feature added is that wavelets can be added and managed separately from bigger waves.

Blip is the word used for single and individual message. Thereby blip can be defined and referred to as a single line of an instant messaging. Blips can be attached to other blips. These are known as children. Blips can be published and can remain unpublished as well.

Andres, (2010) have added that document is a content within a blip. This refers to actual content that often includes characters, text, documents within blips.

Extension is a kind of mini application that works within Wave. Thereby while a user uses Wave, applications can be made and used. These applications range in two kinds, robots and gadgets.  These two kinds of applications shall be discussed in upcoming sections.

Gadgets are applications that can be designed and used by users. It has been added that these applications are designed based on Googles open social platform.

Robots are defined as automated participants within Wave. Actions that can be performed by robots include interacting with waves and communicating with users. Outside information from other applications or websites can be added as Twitter and in some cases, Facebook.  Robots can also perform actions based on these applications.

Wave Gadgets

Figure 4 Google Wave Gadgets
Roche, and Douglas, (2010) argue that Wave gadgets are two main kinds of Google Wave extensions. Gadgets are known as fully functional applications. In order to change the look of Wave, these applications can be added providing its users most of the fun that can add fun to using Wave. In this case, it is seen that any application designed on Google social platform or iGoogle can be used in Wave. Thereby thousands of applications created by Google can be used in Wave. Moreover a gadget built by users using waves can also let users interact in a live manner with other Wave users. Thereby it can create an environment of online gaming in which all online users can participate. Here it can be seen that there is a resemblance with Facebook and Twitter in which gaming becomes online with many users interacting and contributing. Networks as Facebook and Twitter make use of friends networking as these make gaming and using application more fun and productive.

Crumlish, and Malone, (2009) have added that Waves can only be used by users in specific waves and no applications are specific to users thereby this is a contrast to Facebook and Twitter. Gadgets belong to all users within waves as compared to applications being specific to users in Facebook and Twitter. Applications do not have any titles having an ability to interact with ongoing waves in an interactive manner. Some gadgets already built and fed inside Wave include Sudoku gadget, Bidder as this has converted Wave into an auction centre, and Maps and it collaborates with Google Map.

Google Wave Robots

Figure 5 Google Wave Robots
Van Grove, and Horton, (2010) argue that Robots are another unique kind of Google extension. Robots are like other users within waves and these can interact with other users intervening in ongoing waves and conversations. Robots as compared to real life users are automated. Google Wave robots are more robust. Robots have the capacity to amend any information in waves and to communicate with other users and waves. Robots are forms of users thereby their behaviors can be changed as required. These robots can be made to perform functions as simple as correction of spellings and as complex as debugging. Robots already included in Wave includes Debuggy which is known as an in-wave debugger, Stocky which helps in pulling stock prices based on stock quote mentions and most of all Tweety which is known as a Twave robot, and this helps in displaying tweets inside of a wave.

Embeds In Wave
Figure 6 Google Wave Embeds
Andres, (2010) argued that embedding has been observed and followed by users of YouTube. In this case it is more complex just than embedding YouTube onto blogs. In this manner, Wave can interact with a third party website. Websites that have been embedded support many functions supported by Wave itself and this includes dragging and dropping files. Embedding feature in Wave is in its earlier stages. There are two main embedded web applications present in Wave and these include YouTube Playlist Discuss and Multiple Extensions Embed. A YouTube video can be discussed within waves and Multiple Extensions Embed allow for multiple interactions on different waves. It has been argued that Wave embedded items can be a replacement of many static comments. As more work is being done on these embeds, and if it does than perfection can be achieved and comments received on YouTube videos are to be replaced with waves.

Conclusion
Information technology has changed faces and revolution has been introduced known as Google wave. Google has brought many changed in communication platform. Email platforms have been revolutionized by Google Wave by including supporting features that make it more dynamic. Thereby communications have been reshaped by these new developments.

Part 1
Credibility refers to the believability of some information andor its source. Research finds that credibility is a complex concept with two main dimensions expertise and trustworthiness. Other factors affect credibility perceptions as well (Mary, 2000).

Author and publisher credibility is a critical issue. It raises credibility when the authors have no experience on the subject, hold no degrees in related disciplines nor are they working in related professions. Credibility is also questioned when there is no author or publisher information, no bibliography or works cited list so information cannot be verified. (Karen, 1997)

Karen (1997) goes on to say that some content-related issues can give you clues about authors reputation whether it is easy or not to verify the accuracy of the information from the source. Some information provided in the source may be inaccurate and it may lead to damaging results especially when the seeker of the information really depends on it. This may include health or diet resources.
Perspective is also a weighty factor when it comes to a resources credibility. The author may have a differing opinion from the reader and this may cause the resource being rendered incredible. Their claims and assertions may be very vague leaving no doubt that the resource is unclear and hazy in meaning (Mary, 2000). The writer may present a one-sided view that does not acknowledge or respond to opposing views. One may want to see if point of view, bias, or subjectivity is evident and whether the information is presented as fact, opinion, or both. With that in mind, a reader would want to see how this impacts the value of this source for their projects.
 
Coverage of a certain topic definitely impacts on the credibility of a resource. It is worth noting that some resources offer very shoddy information thus raising the credibility question about them. The author might also overstretch the scope of the topic.

Currency of a resource also impacts highly on its credibility. A researcher would not want to use a resource with outdated information when timeliness matters. Resources should strive to contain up-to-date information to be highly credible.

The relevance of the source also impacts on its credibility. The purpose of the source should be to provide readers with new information or direct them to additional information. It may also have a goal of explaining a concept or persuade them.

Part 2
We are all humans and human is prone to error. Although we all make mistakes, poor grammar and spelling can reduce credibility in a big way. (Pamela, 2003) Consider the addresses below
www.computertehcnoloyg.com vs. www.computertechnology.com

The first address clearly shows serious typos that really affect its credibility. Such carelessness already shows that the URLs credibility is in question. Unlike the second URL, it will not lead to any website. It will also make a researcher know that due to such lack of attention to detail, then the website itself cannot even be trusted.

Pamela (2003) also says that impression matters greatly here. The first URL already gives a researcher a bad impression of the website itself. This turns off the users and makes them question the credibility of the website.

Conclusion
As a reader, when 5researching, heshe should make sure that the source is able to answer the questions

What does this source say  Who says it  Why do they say it  What is their evidence  Where did they find the information  Why should you believe it  Is it known to be true  Is it the whole truth  Who else supports it (Gayle, 2003)

Abstract
The paper discusses the topic of genetically modified organisms. The definition and description of GMOs is provided. The issue of safety is discussed. The paper confirms the need for companies to use science-based approaches prior to commercializing new GMOs and making them available to consumers.

The three confusing letters G-M-O have already become inseparable from our daily activities. This abbreviation is everywhere on food product labels and is often included in newspaper editorials and headlines. A wealth of literature has been written about how GMOs can resolve food scarcity issues. Dozens of reports were published to confirm the safety of GMOs and their suitability for everyday use. Yet, the definition of GMOs and their safety remain the topics of the major professional and consumer concern.

The widely used letters GMO actually mean Genetically Modified Organisms. The latter are being extensively used in the development of genetically modified products. GMOs are produced by means of genetic engineering and biotechnology, which use living organisms to create a product or run a process (ADA, 2005). In scientific terms, GMOs and biotechnology imply the use of in vitro nucleic acid techniques and direct injection of nucleic acid into cell organelles or cells, or even fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family to which they belong, for the purpose of overcoming reproductive and recombination barriers (ADA, 2005). These complex processes result in the development of modified features and traits in microorganisms, animals, and plants certainly, these traits go beyond the boundaries of traditional selection and cannot be reproduced via conventional breeding techniques (ADA, 2005). As a result, GMOs are the organisms and products that were modified by using genetic engineering or biotechnology techniques. Given the nature and the specificity of biotechnology, GMOs products should and actually possess features and traits that are unusual for their taxonomical family and that cannot be reproduced through conventional breeding and selection. GMOs are divided into the four broad categories foods containing living organisms, foods containing or derived from ingredients that were also derived from genetic modification foods containing single ingredients produced by genetically modified microorganisms and foods that contain ingredients processed by enzymes, which were produced with the help of genetically modified microorganisms (ADA, 2005). The question, however, is not in how to describe and categorize GMOs, but in how safe they are for consumers.

A mountain of research has been performed to confirm and reaffirm that genetically modified organisms are safe. Many organizations have published new statements of policy or reaffirmed or approved the existing statements related to food or agricultural biotechnology (ADA, 2005). This, however, does not mean that GMOs are safe for all age categories and population groups. Organizations actively work to promote the relevance of science-based evaluation methods and techniques, which businesses and companies should use for new plant varieties before they are produced commercially (GMA, 2006), but the promotion of scientific evaluation techniques alone cannot suffice to guarantee the safety of GMOs. In their current state, GMOs are still associated with health risks and controversies. Because these food products have not previously been in the food supply, there is no concerted agreement as to how human organism will react to them (ADA, 2005).

Nevertheless, all GMOs that are currently available in the international market have passed all necessary safety assessments and are believed to be safe for human health in all age groups (ADA, 2005). Moreover, with the use of science-based approaches to biotechnology-derived products, GMOs are likely to enhance human health through due to improved nutritional value and reduced use of agrochemicals (ADA, 2005).

GMOs are genetically modified organisms that are produced with the help of genetic engineering biotechnology. Genetic engineering implies the use of in vitro nucleic acids to modify one or more genetic traits in plants, animals, and microorganisms that go beyond the boundaries of their taxonomic family. Such modifications are usually impossible during conventional breeding and selection. The safety of GMOs is still a matter of the hot professional debate. All GMOs currently available in the international market have passed all safety assessments and are believed to be safe for all age groups. However, only the use of science-based approaches can guarantee that GMOs are safe for all age groups and that they enhance human health through better nutritional value and reduced use of agrochemicals.

Many integrated circuits are mostly fabricated using quite a number of materials from metals and alloys of metals. The alloys form a wide scope aluminum-copper alloy, titanium, tungsten, an alloy of aluminum and Titanium, which are all joined to the main frame of the silica matrix according to Gibilisco (1992, pp. 33-51). Alloys have a higher ductile strength which makes them withstand thermal forces in the circuit. Other materials which are semiconductors can be used but silicon has found most application because its refractory quality. The microchips are therefore fabricated from wafers which mostly comprise pure silicon. Iron is the material that is used to make the core that is surrounded or rather wound using wire which is made from copper whereas the pins are made from Copper-Zinc alloy (Brass). Brass is better in this application because the pure metals of Copper and Zinc have a knee in their stress-strain curve as in the case with most metals. This knee could cause failure in the circuit. Moreover, brass has also good conductivity.

The integrated circuit has the first two layers which are made on a substrate of a semiconductor which is mainly silicon. The first layer is a made from a high k substance. Gibilisco(1992, pp. 33-51) says that a high k substance is a common term that denotes a material having a high dielectric constant when compared to normal dielectrics like the oxides of silicon or the corresponding nitride. Such high k materials form part of the oxides of the transitional elements in the periodic table. These include oxides of hafnium or zirconium or even ytterbium although it is hard to come by. The second layer consists of the nitride of Titanium. Simon and Cavette (1996, par. 1-21) states that the second layer also has a configuration of a conductive region which may or may not be a barrier of diffusion as a main function required in the layer.

Multiple layers
Gibilisco (1992, pp. 33-51) indicate that the layers that are applied to make part of the electrical connections existing in between the layers of chips are made of metal obviously because of high electrical properties of the metals. The last chip is put under cover which is mainly used for protection and has copper wires used to link the chip to the circuit board of the computer. Copper is needed here because it is a good conductor of electricity and will be most appropriate in the transfer of electrical impulses. The chips of integrated circuits are semiconductor elements which are fabricated from wafers of semiconductors where a polymer material is used for the process of bonding. This bonding material mostly used in the fabrication of an integrated circuit is Atactic polypropylene. The Atactic polypropylene polymer according to Gibilisco (1992, pp. 33-51) has a usual additive which could be an anti-oxidant or a stabilizer.  

Low strength and low young modulus of the Atactic polypropylene makes it mesh well in the silica matrix.  It is able to yield a uniform bond all through the surface of the substrate as well as forms bond which have a standard release temperatures. Moreover, the thermal cyclic through the ranges of temperature used in the process of transferring technique does not lead to a change of the characteristics of bonding neither does it change the release temperatures. In simple terms, Simon and Cavette (1996, par. 1-21) explain by saying that the characteristics of the polymer are not affected by the processes that occur in the integrated circuit. The lithography process, patterns are defined through the application of a liquid which is viscous (scientifically referred to as a photo resist liquid) on the surface of wafer. The photo resist taken through a process of baking for the purpose of hardening. The photo-resist is removed selectively through projection of light in a rectile having mask information. As a circuit, there are auxiliary support boards as well as link the electronic components through conductive ways which are etched using sheets of copper. These copper sheets are laminated on a substrate which is non-conductive.

The layers of conduction are made of metal foils of the copper element according to the description made by Simon and Cavette (1996, par. 1-21). This is because of the good properties of electricity conduction of copper. Copper is needed here to enhance the functioning of the integrated circuit through conduction of electrical impulses. The layers of insulation which are dielectric are specifically manufactured through a lamination process using the prepregnation of the epoxy resin. The epoxy resin is a composite material which enhances the insulation function required in the circuit. Epoxy has a high tensile strength which makes it applicable at high temperatures and therefore can withstand heat generated in the circuit. Simon and Cavette (1996, par. 1-21) indicates that the board aforementioned is particularly coated with a mask of solder material which has a green color. There are various dielectrics that could be opted for to make provision for diverse values of insulation which is wholly depended on the demands according to the given circuit. These dielectrics include such materials like Teflon scientifically known as polytetrafluoroethylene, CEM-1, FR-4, CEM-3 or FR-1.

Many printed integrated circuit boards are fabricated using a copper layer over the whole substrate surface as described by Simon and Cavette (1996, par. 1-21). A process called etching is used to remove excess copper that is not needed. This is done after applying a mask which is made of glass material. From this paper, it is clear that the Silicon element has taken a center stage in the fabrication of an integrated circuit. It is the backbone of the whole integrated circuit fabrication. Towards the conclusion of the paper, the advantages of silicon over the rest of the other material elements are as highlighted below.

Advantages of Silicon in the IC
Silicon has found a major application in the fabrication process of an integrated circuit due to its characteristics of making a semiconductor substrate which forms the matrix of the integrated circuit. Moreover, silicon is readily available and thus makes the entire process economically feasible. The inscribed part of giving identity in such delicate parts of the IC is made possible using silicon.

Generally silica matrix has high softening temperatures as the circuit will often generate a lot of heat. Silicon is able to resists forces and fatigue due to thermal expansion because of its quality of being high refractory. Moreover, it has high thermal stabilities and high tensile strength (stress-strain ratio) when the rest of the other materials are incorporated to its matrix in this application.