Technology

Network routing protocols, either static or dynamic is a matter of choice and both underscore the process of transmission of information from a point source to another and being affected by host of factors before effective delivery. The aim of this presentation is to highlight the major differences and similarities that may exist between the two Routing protocols.

In routing protocols certain terms are quite important because they influence effective transmission. One of these terms or factor is the packets, others include network layer or path destination. All denote certain features which must be in place before effective network transmission through available routers. important consideration as regards to routing protocols are the presence of specific algorithm for each routing protocols and have different design objectives such as optimality, simplicity and low overhead, robustness and stability (Levchenko, Voelker, Paturi  Savage, 2008).

Path determination helps identify the best path for a packet to travel while routing algorithms are designed for specific goals and protocols to be used for hence different routing algorithm possess different characters and impact on the network. Packet switching describes a process whereby information failed to be transmitted is dropped while destination is changed until there is effective transmission. This paper clearly establishes the reasons why a user tends to prefer a specific type of routing protocols. This was found to be dependent on various requirements of the network and the preference of the user even though each protocols has its merits and demerits.

From the study, one important factor that usually determines and influences the use of static routing is the issue of manual manipulation of the protocol requirement in that most of the input is done manually while algorithm is calculated manually. This characteristic of static routing makes it highly demanding and less fault tolerant and lack the ability to dynamically or automatically select the best available alternative route for packet transmission. This property will directly and indirectly limit it use in situation where there are recurrent fluctuations and the demand of dynamic network being developed in recent times. In contrast, dynamic routing protocols, process information continuously hence able to choose another path which could be better than the former.

 This feature present in the dynamic routing protocols balance between multiple available links. Considering the two routing protocols, what distinguishes them are the CPU or RAM usage. CPU or RAM usage is more in the dynamic routing protocol making it more intensive resource intensive compared to the static routing protocols. Path determination, related metrics, convergence and load balancing all create certain issues that need more clarification. Metrics serve an important purpose in the determination of destination especially when there are multiple routes (Cain, 2000).

Considering some of the features highlighted as regards to dynamic and static routing protocols, users tend to believe more on the actions of dynamic routing protocols compared to static protocols but it very important that there are various networks demands or requirement for various scenario and routing protocols fits into different category depending on the features network and expectation of the user as regards to the size of the networks. It is clear that the technology also plays an essential role in the choice of routing protocols but others are also very important.

Allergy is a body disorder that is related to the immune system. Allergy is commonly referred to as atopy a condition experienced in a sensitized person minutes after contact. It is a sensitivity reaction to certain allergens or an abnormal immune system reaction to things which are actually harmless to most people.

An allergic reaction is believed to occur when the immune system of the body mistakenly believes that a substance in contact to your body is harmful to the body. The substance causing allergy reactions are dust, foods, plant pollen or even medicine. All these that cause allergies are known as allergens. The bodys immune system produces the kind of antibodies called IgE to that allergen which cause certain cells in the body to release chemicals into the bloodstream such as histamine. The chemical, histamine acts on the eyes, nose lungs, throat, skin or gastrointestinal tract and this causes the symptoms that reflect an allergic reaction. Such symptoms are Sneezing, cramps, vomiting, running nose, itchy eyes, difficulty in breathing, severe headache, itching on the skin and many more.

Some allergic reactions can be very severe and others mild while others would produce multiple symptoms. The severe reaction is called anaphylaxis and the signs of such intense case include difficulty in breathing, difficulty in swallowing, swelling of lips, tongue and other parts of the body and other victims would experience dizziness or loss of consciousness. Anaphylaxis often occurs just after exposure, a few minutes the symptoms starts revealing after the trigger substance. However, some reactions would take a little more time an average of 3-4 hours although such severe cases do not occur frequently and they would often be treated with availability of proper medical procedures.

ALLERGY DIAGNOSIS
Symptoms and signs can certainly give a strong indication that a person is indeed suffering from allergies although various tests are required to ascertain and confirm a diagnosis. The testing depends on the type of allergic disease in question.

Atopic Dermatitis
This is a long lasting chronic skin disease and it is believed to be affecting large percentage of the population. The atopic dermatitis is called eczema, dermatitis or atopy the three terms are often used in reference of the same disease. It is a common form of skin disease or sensitivity.  It includes asthma, hay fever and eczema although there is a hereditary form of that seen in some families whose predominant factors include skin rashes and itching. DERMATITIS means inflammation of the skin ATOPIC refers to hereditary diseases that tend to run in family kinship and occur together. In atopic dermatitis, dry skin is a rampant symptom and an underlying cause of some of the typical rashsymptoms. The skin is extremely itchy and inflamed causing swelling, cracking, crusting, redness, weeping, and scaling. Most Atopic is more in infants and young children although it can affect persons of any age.

A large number of patients tend to have long term causes and various challenges and this can persist from childhood or later show up in adult life. Multiple factors can trigger or worsen dermatitis such as environmental factors which would activate the symptoms at any time of lives of individuals who have inherited the atopic disease trait. Such environmental factors include exposure to hash soaps and detergents, new skin products or creams and cold weather. In Atopic dermatitis, no laboratory tests that can be used to diagnose it but rather a physician would examine a patients history and review her symptoms.

Diagnosing Atopic Dermatitis
Allergies
The person must have allergies and at least one positive skin test and or a family history of allergic diseases in close relatives. However, there may be rare cases in which a person has atopic dermatitis without evidence of allergies but in most witnessed cases it is picked from family traits.

Eczema
Eczema refers to appearance of rashes in patients with atopic dermatitis. The rash appears red, with small blisters or bumps. These may ooze or flake with further scratching. Over the long-term, the skin appears thickened and leathery.

Itching
The patient must experience itching and has to be scratching in order for the rash to occur. In cases where the skin or areas of the rash do not itch or have not been scratched, then the person does not have atopic dermatitis. So the predominant factor here is that the patient suffering from atopic dermatitis has to expressly experience both itching and a prolonged severe scratching.

People suffering from atopic dermatitis should have a skin test performed to aeroallergens (pollens, moulds, dust mite and pet dander) as well as common food allergens hence avoiding common triggers is one important step involved in treatment of Atopic Dermatitis.

Difference of Atopic Dermatitis and eczema
Eczema has been used as a general term to refer many types of skin inflammation commonly known as dermatitis and allergic types of skin rashes that are not eczema. The known eczemas are allergies, contact irritant, and nummular eczema. Atopic Dermatitis is more specific and it includes three associated conditions that occur in the same person including eczema, allergies, and asthma. However, not every component has to be present at the same time, but in many cases, patients are prone to all of these three related conditions.

Atopic dermatitis is very common worldwide and it affects both sexes i.e. male and female and it accounts for 10 percent of all referrals to doctors who specialize in the care of treatment of skins (dermatologists). The condition occurs in infants and its prevalence decreases with age with about 65 percent of patients developing symptoms on first year of life with 90 percent showing symptoms before the age of 5. After the age of 30, it is then less common although it would occur after exposure of the skin to hash environmental conditions with people living in urban areas with a climate of low humidity being at risk of developing atopic dermatitis.

FOOD ALERGY
There is a varied understanding on reactions that involves food either when consumed or when a person comes into contact with certain foods. Not all reactions towards food would be registered as an allergic reaction. That emphasizes the reason why there should be a probe distinction between allergic reactions and other forms of reactions that are not related to allergy at all.

Food allergy is that negative reaction that happens to the body of a person after specific food particles are ingested and enter the blood stream. The food components when they enter the blood stream, they cause what we call an incitement of an allergic reaction to the body. The foods contain protein components called allergens that are proteins in composition and this form of protein are able to resist the heat during cooking, acid in the stomach and some intestinal digestive enzymes. The allergens are then able survive and cross the gastrointestinal lining and enter the blood stream. When in the blood stream, they get into target organs of the body causing an allergic reaction to that organ e.g. eyes, throat, nose, skin and many other organs. The reaction of the body to such allergens involves the body immune system and the factor of hereditary.

Immune system
Food allergic reaction involves two components of immune system i.e. the type of protein which is an antibody called Immunoglobulin E IgE a specific disease-fighting antibody which circulates in the blood system. The body system produces this antibody which then circulates in the body and reacts against specific food substances. A persons ability to produce Immunoglobulin E is based on inheritance from the family of either parent with allergic reaction.  This antibody Immunoglobulin E then attaches itself to the mast cells which are often found in allergic body organs thus causing an allergic reaction.
The other component is the cell that is found in the tissues of the body called a mast cell. This type of cell is always found in body areas such as nose, throat, lungs, skin and gastrointestinal tract where allergic reactions are bound to take place.

Hereditary
A persons body to have a tendency of producing Immunoglobulin IgE to food is arguably inherited. Statistics show that a large number of people over 80 percent of those suffering with allergic conditions have inherited it from their families who bore them. A person from both parents suffering from allergic reactions is more likely to develop food allergies than someone with one allergic parent. That is the reason why medical physicians argue basing their argument on the prevalence on both parents as a more likely prevalence than that of one parent.

The allergy of food is a hypersensitivity reaction this means that before an allergic reaction to an allergen in food can take place, a person needs to have been exposed previously through sensitization of food. At the initial exposure, the allergen in that given food stimulates specialized white blood cells (lymphocytes) to produce the IgE antibody that is specific for the allergen. This IgE then is released and attaches to the surface of the mast cells in different tissues of the body. The next time the person eats that food its allergen hones in on the specific IgE antibody on the surface of the mast cells and prompts the cells to release chemicals such as histamine. Depending upon the tissue in which they are released, these chemicals cause the various symptoms of food allergy in respective organs of the body such as lungs, nose, eyes and many other parts of the body as indicated by A.D.A.M (2009) National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases(online) available from  HYPERLINK httpadam.about.comcareallergyallergy_reactions.html httpadam.about.comcareallergyallergy_reactions.html

There have been myths about various body effects that local folks have gone calling allergies. Most people when they experience some sort of side effect or unpleasant reaction they tend to call it allergy but let it be known that not all unpleasant reactions would amount to allergy. Very minimal cases of children and adult are clinically proven to be allergy conditions.

The perception people tend to have on allergy outside the professional studies on the same is misinterpretation of between food intolerance with adverse effects with that of clinical allergy. Effects from phenomenon such as food poisoning, toxic reactions from food intolerances and other abnormal responses to foods which can or more less resemble those of food allergy would not still amount to allergies. Allergy cases are and must be determined by that immune system and reveal certain characteristics and features with specific symptoms that are immunological in body response.

Food Intolerance
Digestive system response to certain foods has been construed to be food allergy but clinical fact files draw a line between the two. Food intolerance occurs when a persons digestive or when a persons digestive systems response towards certain food is experiences a breakdown a digestion failure. Such common case of intolerance is found in lactose found in milk and other dairy products.

Symptoms of Food Intolerance
Known symptoms of food intolerance include
Nausea and sweating
Stomach pain leading to diarrhoea
Gas, cramps, or bloating after eating certain foods
Vomiting after eating
Heartburn and belching
Diarrhoea
Headaches and bloating of the stomach
Irritability or nervousness

Food intolerance is associated with lack of enzymes to digest certain food compounds which could result to adverse reactions following consumption of certain foods, this is more appropriately termed asfood intolerance and not food allergy, it should be noted that food allergy involves the immune body system and its response.

Symptoms of a Food Allergy
We have talked previously on food allergy and the causative agent and the immune body reaction that leads to a person construed to be having a food allergy. Now, unlike food intolerance, a patient with allergic food reaction would observe the following symptoms which would range from mild to severe effects and this depends on the intensity of trigger and the immune response of a persons body. These symptoms include-
Rash or hives
Nausea
Stomach pain
Diarrhoea
Itchy skin
Shortness of breath
Chest pain
Swelling of the airways to the lungs
Anaphylaxis
Analysis

Observing on the two cases and there examples of the symptoms, one would confuse a food intolerance to that of food allergy. Some of the symptoms are shared between the two such as vomiting, diarrhoea, nausea and stomach pain. Nearly every person at one time has had a food intolerance issue with something they ate while some people are known to be having specific food intolerances which is not an allergy. Lactose intolerance is the leading food intolerance that affects almost 10 percent of United States Population.

The chain reaction of Food Allergies and Intolerances
Food allergies arise from ingestion of food of sensitive chemical compounds which are proteins in composition. The protein makes the bodys immune system to fight back to protect the body by producing antibodies immunoglobulin E commonly referred to as IgE and other powerful chemicals such as histamine. The histamine is so powerful such that, it can affect the respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract, skin or cardiovascular system. This results to food allergy symptoms occurring in the body. The allergy symptoms discussed earlier on the body depends on where the histamine has been released. A release on nose a patient would have an itchy nose or trouble breathing or swallowing, if released on skin there would be rashes and hives on the skin and in case of a release in the gastrointestinal tract then a victim would develop stomach cramps, pains and diarrhoea.

DIAGNOSIS AND IMMUNOTHERAPY
The diagnosis and immunotherapy applied in recent years to allergic diseases entails crude extracts of allergen source without necessarily defining allergyeliciting molecules. The combination of advanced technology of DNA has resulted in identification, cloning, epitope mapping of clinically significant allergens more possible. The allergens that retain immunological features of natural allergens form the clinical breakthrough of accurate protein-chip based method for the diagnosis of allergic conditions in patients. With the ability to propagate rationally designed hypo-allergic forms of allergens as lead to the development to a safe form of allergy vaccines which have been tested and found to be efficient. The preparations and clinical tests from a recombinant-allergen-based vaccine have already shown positive results and now the emphasis is to derive alternative routes of vaccine delivery which will enhance patient compliance.

Food Allergy Diagnosis
Stephen Barrett, M.D. Many dubious practitioners claim that food allergies may be responsible for virtually any symptom a person can have. In support of this claimwhich is falsethey administer various tests purported to identify offending foods, Allergies Dubious Diagnosis and Treatment. Jan 15 2010.The scientific clinical study shows that there is far difference between allergies and otherwise that people perceived allergies turn out to food intolerance.

Cytotoxic Testing
The test was in late 1980s being used by storefront clinics, laboratories, nutrition consultants, chiropractors, and medical doctors and was believed to determine food sensitivity which was then believed to be liable for diseases such as asthma, arthritis, constipation, diarrhoea, hypertension, obesity, stomach disorders and many of such conditions.

ELISAACT Testing
This was also a kind of test that was being used in locating allergies of which the symptoms showed within minutes after the ingestion of food or chemical. The symptoms included hitching and hives. This either proved unequal to the task in cases where some allergy symptoms delayed to about 2hours to 5 days and the symptoms varying from physical pain to unexplained fatigue.

Using ELISAACT Testing would assess a small portion of certain immune responses some of which might not necessarily be linked to allergy. The ELISAACT is done in culturing a patients lymphocytes and analysing on how they react to up to 300 foods, minerals, preservatives, and other environmental substances. After which the practitioner then recommends dietary modification and supplements.

PRESENT DIAGNOSIS AND IMMUNOTHERAPY
AEE and AEG
Food antigens have been implicated as one of the main cause of allergies
Skin prick test and atopy patch tests can be useful for food allergy diagnosis
Elimination diets or even amino-acid formula can be instituted on the basis of allergy testing, clinical history, biopsy and treatment response
Pharmacologic treatment oral steroids andor swallowed aerosolized (fluticasone) tablets
Anti-IL-5 therapy
Diagnosis (History and Examination)
The physician would reaffirm the following-
History symptoms, timing, reproducibility
Acute reactions on chronic disease
Diet details  and their symptom diary
Specific causal food or foods
Physical examination Evaluate disease severity
Identify general approach
Allergy against intolerance
IgE-mediated against non-IgE mediated

Diagnosing food hypersensitivity disorders  IgE-mediated
Identification and relationship with the food Medical history
To identify specific IgE Skin testsserum specific IgE
To demonstrate that IgE sensitization is responsible for the clinical reaction Controlled challenge tests
Diagnosis is based on the medical history, supported by identification of specific IgE antibodies to the selected pointed suspicious food allergen and confirmed by challenge.

TABLE (a)
Various Foods and their percentage rate in causing allergic reactions
Foods and DrinksAllergy effects in population () Alcohol5.4Legumes (beans)11.4Cereals11.4Fruits7.6Mushrooms2.7Tubers9.8Vegetables7.6Sea Foods14.7In the above table, Sea foods, cereals and Legumes such as beans largely show clinical symptoms in allergy effects.

TABLE (b)
Clinical Symptoms Caused by Floods
Organs affectedSigns and symptomsTotal ()Ear and Nose and Throat (ENT)Diminished hearing, painful, watery nose, sore throat1.2EyeBlurred and diminished vision1MouthMouth irritation, inflamed tongue and overall sour mouth1.2RespiratoryStruggling with breathing, catarrh, asthma, prolonged cough9.6CirculatoryImpairment of heart beat, palpitation of heart1.2The figures represent in the above shows people a percentage of people affected by the group of symptoms out of the total number.

Conclusion
In the stated metadata, fewer people seem to be affected in their body organs namely circulatory, eyes, mouth and Ear Nose and throat whereby the majority of them show more symptoms in their respiratory organ.

Most food that tend to affect or seem to be carrying allergic reaction in most people in the other hand contain nutrients which are fatal for the bodys health and development and in this case, an absolute abstinence would render the victims into malnutrition. This has led to people consuming such vital foods amid suffering continues allergic discomforts.

Food allergy should be recognized as a public health problem and be addressed as so and raise awareness to the public on the challenges and issues and how to best deal with the growing cases of allergies that are associated with foods.

A great deal of research has been conducted examining the leadership styles of managers and administrators. Much research has also been done to measure the organizational commitment of employees however, is known about the relationship that exists between these two variables.  This study aims to fill this gap by investigating the relationship between managers leadership style and employees organizational commitment.
       
The employees are the organizations front liners. They are the key players in making sure that the goods are delivered to the clients. Moreover, it is important for the managers to be aware of the subordinates degree of organizational commitment so that they may look into possible ways of strengthening the commitment.

Lastly, data from this research may contribute to the existing literature on the relationship between leadership styles and organizational commitment.

INTRODUCTION

Leadership begins with character.  The inner and personal attributes such as honesty, willingness to serve, recognition of others good deeds, care for the human person and identification with the larger goals of the organization all contribute to the making of a leader.  The leader is admired, respected and trusted by his followers because his character is deemed worthy of emulation (Bass and Avolio 1994, 3).

But times have changed.  In an age of accountability, it takes more than a respectable character to run an organization.  Gill (2006) asserts that character traits appear to be enabling rather than determining.  To believe that universal traits define a leader is nothing more than a return to the antiquated trait  theory of leadership which suggested that special traits and personality set leaders apart from non-leaders (Gill 2006, 41).   A leader must think in terms of performance, not personality.  It is not so much what he does, but what he achieves that matters (Reddin 1970, 3, 9).

A leaders effectiveness is measured by the extent to which he influences his followers to achieve group objectives (Reddin 1970, 8).  Leadership effectiveness is seen in relation to a specific situation.  A leaders ability to adapt his leadership style to the demands of the situation is a function of his effectiveness.  His effectiveness is crucial to the success of the organization.

I.  Leadership in Organizations
According to Stogdill (1948) Leadership is a process of interaction between persons who participate in goal oriented group activities.  Stogdills concept of  leadership leads to three assumptions.  First is that leadership is a function of an individual.  Second, leadership is an aspect of group organization.  Third, leadership is concerned with attaining objectives (Stogdill and Shartle 1948, 287). These objectives set the direction of the organization, making leadership a crucial function (Simon 1948, 9).

The earliest systematic research on leadership identified traits of great leaders.  It assumed that great leaders were endowed with universal characteristics that set them apart from non-leaders.

Around the 1930s to the 1940s, however, several studies altered the view on human traits as the basis of leadership. Researchers began to look into leader behavior as the basis of leadership.

Leadership Theories
In as much as the behavior of leaders in an organization is crucial to leadership effectiveness, evidence from research clearly indicates that there is no single all-purpose leadership style (Korman 1966, 349-361).  Successful leaders are those who can adapt their behavior to meet the demands of the environment.

The situation is an important factor which contributes to the leaders effectiveness. This discovery led to the development of Situational or Contingency Theories in the late 1960s. Contingency Theories suggest that there is no one best style of leadership.  Successful leadership is dependent on the nature of the situation and the followers (Fiedler 1967, 12).
Fiedlers Leadership Contingency Theory

Fiedler pioneered the study of contingency theories in the 1960s.  His Leadership Contingency Theory asserts two basic assumptions.  First, the Contingency Model suggests that a leader has either a Relationship Oriented Style or a Task Oriented Style.  Second, the three most important situational variables interacting with a leadership style are (a) Leader-Member Relationships, (b) Task Structure (c) Formal Position Power.  All three variables have an impact on the degree of control of the leader.

A few of the criticisms of Fiedlers Theory (1967) have been the difficulty in assessing its variables and the little attention it gives to the characteristics of its subordinates (Walter 1969, 33-47). Nevertheless, his work paved the way for a more adequate analysis, not only of leadership effectiveness, but also of both the situation and the organization.

Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory
Hersey and Blanchard developed the Situational Leadership Model in 1969.  This theory assumes that the leadership style  behavior of the leader as perceived by the followers  can be classified into task behavior and relationship behavior.

Task behavior is the defined as the extent to which the leader spells out the duties and responsibilities of an individual or group.  This behavior includes telling people what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who is to do it.  Relationship behavior, on the other hand, is defined as the extent to which the leader engages in a two-way or multi-way communication.  This behavior includes listening, facilitating and supportive behaviors (Hersey and Blanchard 1969, 191).

The biggest contribution of Hersey and Blanchard (1969) to the understanding of leadership is the importance given to ReadinessMaturity level, defined as the followers willingness ability to accomplish a specific task (Hersey  and Blanchard 1969, 193) as an important situational factor that determines the effectiveness of any leadership style.

William Reddins 3-D Theory of Leadership Effectiveness
In 1970, William Reddin developed the 3-D Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. This theory was chosen for this study because it attempts to put together theoretical bases previously mentioned such as leader traits, leader behavior, leader-follower relationships and situational factors. The 3-D Theory differentiates itself sharply from most behavioral theories in the centrality it gives to Effectiveness.  This theory suggests that the prime purpose of any leadership action is to improve effectiveness (Reddin 1970, 182).

House-Mitchell Path-Goal Theory
Evans (1970) put forth that leadership serves two important functions  path clarification and rewarding.  House (1971) expounded this idea and together, they developed the Path-Goal Theory. They contended that a more comprehensive theory must be able to recognize at least four distinctive types of leader behavior.  There are  1.  Directive Leadership that provides specific guidance and clarifies expectations, 2.  Supportive Leadership that shows concern for status and personal needs of the subordinates, 3.  Achievement Oriented Leadership that sets challenging goals, seeks performance improvement and emphasizes excellence, and 4.  Participative Leadership that consults with subordinates in decision-making (House 1971, 324-325).

The two situational factors that mediate between leader behavior and subordinates outcomes are  (a) follower characteristics and (b) environmental factors.
Vroom-Yetton Normative Theory

In 1973, Vroom and Yetton developed the Normative Model which operates on five basic assumptions  (a) The normative model was created to be of potential value to leaders in determining a leadership method that is both operational and specific to a situation.  (b) There are a number processes by which organizational problems translate into solutions and these processes differ in terms of the potential amount of participation of the subordinates in the problem-solving process.  (c) No one leadership method is applicable to all situations the function of the normative model is to provide a framework for the analysis of situational requirements that can be translated into prescriptions of leadership style.  (d)  The most appropriate unit of analysis of the situation is the particular problem to be solved and the context in which the problem occurs.  (e) The leadership method that is to be used in one situation should not constrain the method or style to be used in other situations (Vroom and Yetton 1973, 12-16).
Transformative Leadership
Bass (1985, 3) expounded the idea of transformational and transactional leadership and characterized transformational leaders as harnessing in their subordinates the capacity to perform beyond expectations. Transformational leaders motivate and stimulate their subordinates to transcend from their own personal interest for the greater good of the group, organization or society.

Transformational leaders tend to use one or more of the four Is  individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and idealized influence.  As a result, subordinates want to meet the expectations and display commitment, not merely complying to the vision, mission and tasks (Bass and Avolio 1994, 27).

II. Organizational Commitment
Barnard (1938) defines formal organization as a system of consciously coordinated activities of two or more individuals who are  1. able to communicate with each other 2. willing to contribute action and 3. accomplish a common purpose.  Thus, an organization, simple or complex, is always a system of cooperated human efforts guided by a purpose and a personal willingness to contribute to the organization.  (Barnard 1938, 73,82).
 
The capacity of any organization to thrive is dependent upon the willingness of its members to effectively contribute to organizational purpose. The members willingness and contribution are likewise dependent on the satisfaction they get from the organization.  If the satisfaction outweighs the sacrifices, then, there is organizational equilibrium (Barnard 1938, 82-83).

The Theory of Organizational Equilibrium is essentially a theory of motivation  a set of conditions that can encourage the members to continue membership in their present organization.  This theory reflects the organizations success in arranging payments to its participants to induce their continued participation in the organization (March and Simon in 1958, 84-93).  

Becker (1960) explains commitment as a consistent behavior a disposition to engage in consistent lines of activity as a result of the accumulation of side bets that would be lost if the activity were discontinued. Consistent lines of activity refers to the decision of the individual to maintain membership in his present organization, side bet, on the other hand refers to anything of value in which the individual has invested that would be lost or deemed worthless at some perceived cost to the individual if he decides to leave the organization.  The perceived cost of leaving the present organization may be magnified by a perceived lack of alternatives to replace the forgone investments (Becker 1960, 33-35).
Kanter (1968, 504) describes cognitive-continuance commitment as that which occurs when there is profit associated with continued participation in the organization and a cost associated with leaving the organization. He likewise defines cohesion commitment as the individual fund of affectivity and emotion to the group.

For Stebbins (1970, 527), continuance commitment is the awareness of the impossibility of choosing a different social identity because of the penalties or inconveniences that will result from this choice.
Kiesler (1971, 26) defines commitment as the pledging or binding of oneself, as in committing oneself to a course of action.  Extensive experiments he did on this subject identified three variables, namely (a) extremeness of attitudes, (b) familiarity with attitude issue (depth of knowledge) and (c) social support for attitude (degree of affiliation with others advocating the same stance) (Kiesler 1971, 27).  He hypothesizes that a person can be committed to a group either by membership (belonging to a group by a semi-formal way) or by reference. A reference is a group where the individual gains values, opinions and so forth (Kiesler 1971, 176).

The most prevalent approach to organizational commitment literature is one where commitment is considered as an emotional or affective attachment to the organization with which the employee identifies, in which he is involved and to which he enjoys membership in the organization.

Buchanan (1974, 533) conceptualizes commitment as a partisan, affective attachment to the goals and values of the organization, to ones role in relation to the goals and values  and to that of the organization apart from its purely instrumental worth.

Porter, Mowday and Steers (1979, 226) best represent the affective attachment approach by defining organizational commitment as the relative strength of an individuals identification with and involvement in a particular organization.  It can be characterized by three related factors  (a) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organizations goals and values (b) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization and (c) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization.  Commitment therefore represents something more than loyalty to an organization.  It involves an active relationship with the organization where the employees are willing contribute and cooperate for the fulfillment of the organizational goals as evidenced not only in their beliefs and opinions but from their actions as well (Porter, Mowday and Steers 1979, 226).

Summary
The managers are faced with a myriad of responsibilities.  The time, effort and skill they put into their jobs are crucial to their effectiveness.   They should be aware of the employees level of organizational commitment so that they may explore possible ways of strengthening their level of commitment.
The employees are the schools front liners. They are the key players in making sure that the goods are delivered to the clients. A more harmonious and cooperative relationship between the manager and their employees should be forged which is important for the smooth running of the organization.

The relationship between the superior and subordinate is one of the most important aspects in an organization.  Superiors and subordinates share a common vision, albeit different roles and expectations. This vision is articulated and spelled-out by the administrators while employees serve as a catalyst in the realization of this vision.

The subordinate, however, must first be able to bridge the gap between what he is asked to do, by the requirements of his job, and his own personal beliefs and values, before he is able to commit himself to the organization.   Commitment is forged when the ideals and values of the employee are congruent to that of the organization.  An employees active participation in the fulfillment of the companys vision-mission is determined by his commitment to the organization.

William Henry Gates III or better known by the world as the infamous Bill Gates and is consistently ranked among the worlds wealthiest people was born on October 28, 1955 in Seattle Washington. He was the middle child of William H. Gates, Sr. and Mary Maxwell. He shared his childhood days with her two sisters namely Kristi and Libby. Both parents originally planned a law career for their only child but the future had better plans for him.

At age 13, his parents enrolled him at Lakeside school, an independent private school, which uses transformative experiences in academics, the arts and athletics to expose their students to new ideas and help them develop their critical thinking skills and pushes them to pursue their passions in life (Noe). It is here where Bill Gates got acquainted with computers and sparked the beginning of a legacy which the world will remember forever. When he was in the eighth grade, the Schools Mothers Club sponsored a rummage sales so the school may have an ASR-33 teletype terminal, a teleprinter, and a block of computer time on a General Electric computer (GE). Gates was given the opportunity to work in programming using the GE system and was excused from his math subjects so he may have more time pursuing his newly found interest. He successfully made his very first computer program with the GE, tic-tac-toe which is a program that allows users to play games against the computer. He got very fascinated with the accuracy of execution produced by the machine and realized at that point forward what he wanted to pursue in the future, that is certainly not law.

Gates was not the only one who fell in love and astounded by these machines. Together with Paul Allen, Ric Weiland, and Kent Evans, the four continued their study with computers including DEC PDP minicomputers and got so engulfed by it that they exploited bugs in the operating system to obtain free computer time. Unfortunately their programming skills have not yet reached its maximum level and they got caught. They were soon banned for the summer because of this misdemeanor but these did not killed their passion for programming. Soon they offered to become the police of the Computer Center Corporation (CCC) and find bugs in exchange for computer time which was gladly given to them. Their thirst for programming knowledge grew by the second and Gates soon found himself studying source codes for various programs. Eventually, the four cyber criminals of CCC were hired by Information Science Inc., more known as Volt Inc., to create a payroll program in COBOL. The offer was irresistible since it gave them their desired computer time with a bonus of royalty pay.

Lakeside administrators soon realized the exceptional programming quality of Gates and tasked him to create the schools computer program to schedule students in classes. With power in his hands, he manipulated the system so he may be enlisted in classes with mostly female students. He remained a normal student with growing hormones and the programming talent he have proved beneficial in sufficing most of his biological needs. Nevertheless, nothing can compare his love and affection towards the most beautiful thing in the world in his eyes  the computer.  At an early age of 17 together with his fellow cyber criminal turned computer prodigies Paul Allen, he formed Traf-O-Data which makes traffic counters and created useful reports for traffic engineers.

In the year 1973, he graduated from Lakeside School and scored 1590 out of 1600 on the SAT. He enrolled at Harvard College in the autumn of 1973 with no definite study plan. He kept constant communication with Paul Allen who was two years his senior and decided to leave Harvard and pursue his passion with computers. Earning the support of his parents, they formed their own software computer company upon the twos foresight that computers will be very vital to the whole world in the near future. This belief sprung from their hearts at a period where barely 2 percent of the world population is acquainted with computers and programming which shows his advanced technological foresight.

With the onset of the release of MITS Altair 8800 presented in the issue of Popular Electronics in January 1975, Gates even with no ready code on hand contacted Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) to inform them of their recent project BASIC interpreter for the platform which will fit with the Altair 8800. This bold move opened the doors for him to meet MITSs president, Ed Roberts, who was convinced with their proposal. They soon developed an Altair emulator which runs on minicomputer and was also successful in giving birth to the BASIC interpreter he originally had in mind. The software was then called Altrair BASIC after the fusion of the two programs. A year after, the two registered the trade name Microsoft with the Office of the Secretary of the State of New Mexico and triggered the end of his academic life in Harvard.

Unfortunately, or fortunately depending on how you look at it, software developers where not given high regards in the 70s and copyright infringement became a major issue for Gates. A lot of computer hobbyists were using their companys software and he insisted that they cannot do so without payment as stated in his famous Open Letter to Hobbyists. MIT did not side with Gates sentiments over this matter and on January 1, 1979 the two companies left one anothers comfort and stood as independent companies. From this point forward, Microsoft office was moved from Albuquerque to Bellevue Washington.

The year 1980 would be the year for IBM and Microsoft. IBM needed a basic interpreter for it upcoming personal computer and sought the help of Microsoft. Gates initially declined aid to IBM but after the failed transaction with Digital Research offered to create 86-DOS. Gates delivered this software which he called PC-DOS in exchange for a one time fee of 50,000. This program made Microsoft a major player in the computer industry. In the year 1981, IBM underwent a company restructuring which made Gates President of Microsoft and Chairman of the Board. Four years after, Microsoft launched the very first retail version of Microsoft Windows that eventually overtook the Mac OS, which was considered as the dominant player in the industry during that time. The 90s signaled several number one posts for Bill Gates as the top personality in Forbes list of the Worlds Richest People. It can be called the Golden Decade in his life because it is also the decade where he tied the knot with Melinda French, a former unit manager for several Microsoft products like Publisher, Microsoft Bob, Encarta, and Expedia. She soon gave birth to their three children. She stood side by side with Bill in almost all of his endeavors which includes charity works.

After achieving everything anyone could have ever ask for in this world financial stability, social stature, healthy family and individual flourishing, the Gates combined three family foundations and created the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The foundation is based in Seattle, Washington, which is also the hometown of Bill, with the primary aim of alleviating extreme poverty and improve healthcare system. It also includes expanding education opportunities and access to information technology. It is a transparent foundation with the Rockefellers as its major supporters. The foundation works under three major grant making programs namely Global Health Program, Global Development Program, and United States Program.  The Global Health Program supports the following The Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization, The Childrens Vaccine Program, Department of Global Health at the University of Washington in Seattle, HIV Research, Aeras Global TB Vaccine Foundation, Visceral Leishmniasis Research.  The Global Development Programs which aims to combat the growth of poverty supports the following Financial Access Initiative, Pro Mujer, Grameen Foundation, Rice Research, and Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa. The Global Initiatives is the foundations response towards the unexpected catastrophes which devastates the world population. Some of these are the following Indian Ocean Earthquake, Kashmir Earthquake, and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Lastly is the United States Program which supports the following U.S Libraries like the Southeastern Library Network, Carnergie Mellon University, D.C. Achievers Scholarships, Gates Cambridge Scholarships, United Negro College Fund, Newschools Venture Fund, Strong American Schools, The Texas High School Project, University Scholars Program, Washington State Achievers Scholarship, University of Washington School of Law, Discovery Institute, and the Computer History Museum. The foundation gained worldwide recognition and was presented with several awards which includes The Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation in the year 2006 and the Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development last year.

At present, the Gates live in their estate located at Lake Washington in Medina. He acts as Microsofts Chairman and Chief Soffware Architect. He wrote two books The Road Ahead and the Business  the Speed of Thought. He also appeared in several T.V. shows and in some films. He has been awarded several times over by different institutions and is seen together with the activities supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. He constantly updates his foundations blog as part of his saga to educate the masses regarding the current problems the world is facing.   Nevertheless, at the end of the day he is a happy and contented father of three children.

The life story of William Gates III is far from over. We do not know what he will do in the future or what the future will do for him. He has once again proven in history that attainment of a high educational degree is not a major key factor in achieving financial, social and individual success in the world.  It takes more than a diploma to put a man in the pedestal and admiration of the majority. Although there are some who view him as a liability to society or try so much to discredit his successes in life especially in the field of business and technology, life wouldnt be that fun if it only favors to you. In conclusion, he remains a man vulnerable to the medias scrutiny and awaits the sudden surprises in life. His book of life is still being turned to as the days go on and a new unfolding no one can ever see.

E-government is the use of technologies by the government of a country to provide its citizens with better public services and for streamlining and computerizing a majority of the governmental operations. In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, e-government implementation initiatives were taken in 1998. The country is still striving hard to become amongst the information societies of the world. However, a number of challenges are in the way of successful implementation such as problems in accountability, lack of qualified staff, a lack of internet users and rules and regulations. Another problem area is that of the citizen awareness of the adoption of e-government in Saudi Arabia. This level is likely to be very low and so it adds to another challenge for the government. This level needs to be measured so that it can be improved. Moreover, the problems of these citizens need to be identified also. Carrying out a research to study these aspects will have implications for both the Saudi society and the Saudi government. This research will answer these questions and optimistically guide members of the government and citizens towards a more successful implementation of e-government, by identifying major issues including citizen awareness.

Background
Information and Communication technologies (ICTs) are changing the way people live their lives  the way they communicate, they way they carry out transactions and simply, the way they do business. In the sphere of the government, ICTs is changing governmental operations in a number of areas (Pascual, 2003) and is giving rise to the growing role of e-government. E-government is said to be a general term describing the use of technologies to facilitate the operation of government and the disbursement of government information and services (McGuigan, n.d.)

However, the spread of ICT is irregular. Meaning that in some areas the impact is a move to knowledge based economies while in other regions, there may be no impact at all. This gap in the impact of ICT marks the irregular advancement of economies. It also underscores the governmental role in the information age (Pascual, 2003).

It is an interest in this disparity between economies progress in the information age that has become the motivation for my research. The implementation of e-government and e-offices has been carried out in a number of economies, mostly developed. The real challenge, however, is that of implementing e-government initiatives in economies that are a little less developed. These are economies where all citizens do not have access to ICTs, except those residing in the bigger cities. This means that the awareness levels of these citizens is also low and therefore, implementation of e-government becomes a challenge. It is this level of awareness and the challenges surrounding implementation of e-government that is the core of my dissertation. The country chosen, as a subject of study, where awareness level of citizens and challenges facing implementation would be measured is the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Saudi Arabia is one of the richer developing country of the Middle Eastern region that took e-government implementation initiatives in 1998 (Sahraoui et al., 2006)  and is striving to enhance these initiatives. E-government efforts in Saudi Arabia are greatly concentrated in the bigger cities like Riyadh, Mecca and Madinah. In contrast however, a thorough research in these cities also show that they have just hardly managed to implement basic e-Government services, together with a number of hurdles to successful implementation and advancement linked to the government and the citizens (Al-Fakhri et al., 2008)

In a relatively newer report by the Internet World usage and population statistics (IWS, 2008) There has been a shocking increase in the number of internet users in eight years from approximately 200,000 to 6,380,000, a growth of 3,090.0 . Despite this increase, implementing an e-government is still a painful process. The major challenges surrounding the adoption of an e-government program are problems in accountability, rules and regulations, finding qualified staff and internet usage (Alsheha, 2007).

Therefore, the rationale for this dissertation is to study the level of awareness of Saudi citizens regarding the adoption of e-government in their country, and to understand what problems in relation to this implementation are, for the citizens and the government. On the whole, this dissertation would be an important tool in providing readers with information on e-government in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Aims and Objectives
The aim of this dissertation is to study the Saudi citizens level of awareness about the adoption of an e-government system, how this can be improved and the challenges faced in its implementation, both by the citizens and the government.

The objectives for meeting this aim include a review of the literature on E-government in Saudi Arabia  what the challenges of its implementation are, what citizens know about it or whether they know anything about such an adoption of technologies, and whether they are being benefited or not with its implementation so far. This secondary research would give the researcher an idea about what the challenges facing the government are.

Another objective would be to gather primary information regarding the topic. Citizen awareness levels and their problems will be identified and measured using questionnaires, on a sample. This objective would meet the aim of answering questions regarding citizen awareness and their problems.

Moreover, another objective would be to analyze results and give recommendations for improvement of citizen awareness, based on this analysis. This would be a completely different phase altogether. The final objective in meeting this aim would be to write up the dissertation and submit it to concerned persons andor parties.

Approach
This dissertation would be conducted using both secondary and primary forms of research. Secondary research would involve carrying out a review of relevant literature written on e-government in Saudi Arabia. Literature on e-government will be studied so the researcher can present the concept clearly with enough information on hand.

Moreover literature on implementation of e-government in Saudi Arabia since 1998 to 2008 will be reviewed such as Yesser (Saudi e-Government Program, 2010 . More recent statistics, for instance, on the number of internet users, will be identified using agency reports such as Internet World Usage, etc. Moreover literature on what challenges the Saudi government and Saudi citizens have faced with its implementing would be read. A list of all the references that have already been reviewed and will be used later again is presented in the bibliography.

As far as primary research or field work is concerned, it will be used to identify and measure the level of citizen awareness and the challenges they are facing with the adoption of an e-government system. This would be an important source for eliciting most of the information we need to know about the user aspect  the citizens citizen awareness and their problems regarding its implementation.

To gather this information, a questionnaire (see Appendix A for a portion of questionnaire) will be devised with both opened- and closed-ended questions. Likert scales will also be used in a few questions to gauge the degree to which citizens are aware. The questionnaire would be written in easy language, free from jargon, for the non-technical citizens of Saudi Arabia.

The population of the research study will be all the citizens of the Kingdom of Saudia Arabia. However, the sample of the study will include only 70 citizens, both internet and non-internet users, in the age bracket of 15 to 40. Such a variable sample is chosen for the purpose of gathering as much information as the researcher can. For example, by including people who use and who do not use the internet, both, will give the researchers an idea of how important internet usage is as a factor for creating citizen awareness. Moreover, using a sample with such a wide age bracket would give results about how important the age is in the success and awareness of implementation of e-government.

However, the problem with such variability is that this small sample of 70 will be divided between these variances. For instance, not many people from the age of 40 alone, or 25 alone will be in the sample. All age levels will have only a few numbers from the total sample because the sample is significantly small. However, the sample has to be kept small because of the cost and time limitations.

Therefore, the two major research methods would include a review of existing literature on the topic and questionnaire method. Both have limitations but the researcher would find the best possible utilization of the information available to derive conclusions and recommendations.

Plan
The first major task of the dissertation involves carrying out a literature review. This will be a researching literature on e-government in Saudi Arabia when implementation initiatives were taken, the problems faced by citizens and government, and reasons for its delay. This will take three weeks to do because extensive secondary research will also form the basis of the primary research. The primary research will start as soon as the researchers have a fair idea of what questions to put in the questionnaire. Questionnaires will then be distributed to the sample and gathered from them. This will take two weeks in total  making the questionnaire, distributing them and taking them back. They will be analyzed once the researchers gather them. This will be an important task and would decide the outcome of our study. Therefore, three weeks will be spent interpreting this important data.

Research Writing would take two weeks in total followed by writing conclusions and presenting recommendations. This would take an additional week. The Final Draft will then be written in one week and the report will be submitted in the final week.

Major milestones are questionnaire gathering (by the end of fourth week), interpretation (end of seventh week) and writing the final draft (end of 11th week). All this information is illustrated in the Gantt Chart given below (Figure 1).

The current trends in technological development in any field have shifted towards improvement in efficiency and size reduction. I take the role played by microprocessors as one of the best examples of this fascinating trend.  I have a very high regard for microprocessors in the way they are able to carry their functions fast and high level of preciseness. They have the capacity to work and multitask like a brain of a person in the way they process the information given to them. The most fascinating thin is their continued reduction in size to a small chip with an added degree of effectiveness. This subject holds a lot of significance today and in the future as microprocessors continues to gain more and more applicability in more than one field. In this study, I intend to explore the history behind the current age of microprocessors, the applicability and the future trends (Holly, 2003). My interest is based on the conviction that, we are becoming more and more dependent on technology. Microprocessors provide a good channel that can allow us to combine our ingenuity with technology. This is possible through the application of programs into these microprocessors which can later be executed with high level of flexibility at a higher speed and precision.

History of microprocessors
The development of a microprocessor came into being out of desire to combine major functions of data processing into a single central processing unit. This became possible after evolution of integrated circuits commonly referred to as microchips in 1970s. During this period, the initial microprocessor was invented by Intel group and was called Intel 4004 which was introduced in the market in 1971.

Earlier on, computers comprised of collection of chips which were connected together to perform a collective function (Fransman, 1995). The evolution of 4004 brought about the ability to perform all functions from a single chip. This also brought about the ability to have portable processors. This was only a 4-bit portable electronic calculator. However, in 1974, Intel introduced the first 8-bit microprocessor Intel 8080 with a capacity of being used as a home computer with one chip. The real impact of personal computers in the market occurred in 1982 after Intel 8088 micro chip was incorporated in the IBM Personal Computer. The development of this technology has continued with tome which saw the making of 80286, 80386 and 80486. This later gave way to Pentium microprocessors. The development of Pentium has been latest development which has seen the making of Pentium I, II, III and the latest Pentium IV microprocessors (Parhami, 2005). All of these microprocessors are based on improvements on the original technology employed by Intel in manufacture of 8088 microprocessor. However, Pentium IV has the capacity of running similar functions carried out by 8088 at a speed of five thousands times faster. The greatest advantage of these processors is that they have come to do work that could have been done by thousands of people. They have also eased in collection, synthesizing, storage and retrieval of information.

Composition of a microprocessor
A micro processor houses the central processing unit. A basic microprocessor consists of five major parts which includes arithmetic and logic unit, control unit, register array, system bus and the memory. The control unit (CU) controls the transfer of all instructions in and out of the processor. Control unit consists of a decoder, control logic circuit and a timer which ensures that every instruction given is carried out in the right tome. It also carries out the control operations of the arithmetic and logic unit. It also determines the cycle of execution of the instructions given into it. The arithmetic and logic unit carries out functions relating to addition, multiplication, subtraction and division of numbers. This happens after a message has been sent from control to carry out these functions (Dedrick, Kraemer, 1998).  The register array contains a small level of internal memory which is used to conduct fast storage and recovery of information or any other instructs ions passed into the processor. The most common registers contained in the microprocessors includes, instruction register, program counter register, accumulator register, stack pointer register and memory address register.

The system bus consists of a control bus, address bus and data bus. This functions as the transfer of information from the processor to other major components. The address bus sends instructions to the memory while the data bus can send or receive data f5rom the memory. This includes the memory, the processor itself and other computer peripherals like the printer, scanner, mouse and the monitor. There is also the read and write lines which sends information to the memory concerning the location where the information is to be stored or retrieved.

The stack array functions as a temporary storage room for storage of data. The microprocessor may push some of the data passed into it into these temporary storage units as it continues to process the other. Information is placed into different stacks depending on their order of execution.

Working of a microprocessor
Microprocessor consists of all functions of a central processing unit and controls all the functions of a computer once it has been turned on. Some of the typical operations of a microprocessor include carrying out additional, subtraction, and even comparison of numbers. This function is enabled by the instruction given to it by the user. All the buses that transfer information are connected to either read -only memory (ROM) or random access memory (RAM) and mostly both. ROM chip consists of permanent set off programmed bytes (Sichel, 1997). The address bus informs the ROM chi op which information to acquire and put it on the bus. Upon the change of state in read line, the ROM Chip places the required data on the data bus for transfer to the desired location. On the other hand, the RAM consists of bytes of information upon which the microprocessor can write or read depending on the kind of bus signalled onto it. However, most of the present day RAMs tend to lose all information contains on then once the power of a microprocessor is turned off. This is the reason why all computers requires a RAM so as to store the information once it has been processed by the through the RAM. It is very difficult to have a computer that has no ROM. In most of the personal computers ROM is known as the basic input and output system (BIOS). On switching on a computer, the operation of a microprocessor is initiated (Holly, 2003). It starts its operation on the operations or programs present in the BIOS. The instructions guides the microprocessor to carry out basic operations on the hardware such as collecting the programs contained in the boot sector. Thereafter, the BIOS stores the information collected to the RAM. As more and more instructions are fed into the BIOS, the program contained in the boot sector will continue to instruct the microprocessor which will execute the task in the required order. Concisely, a microprocessor continues to load and carry out other tasks in the operating system depending   on the instructions given.

Microprocessors aquires instructions and executed them on bit patterns. The processor recognises each instruction as a different from the preceding instruction and loads it into the register. To execute these instructions, a pre- programmed instruction must exist within the memory of the microprocessor. The processor understands its instructions in digits. From the 8-bit processors invented in 1970s the designs have improved to 12, 16, 32 and even 64 bit microprocessors. The latest 64-bit microprocessors entered in the PC market in the as per from year 2000.

Current and future trends
There has been a great deal of approach in improving the performance of the microprocessors with an aim of turning making g them be in a position to handle multiprocessors. To achieve this, most of the microprocessor manufacturers have sought for ways of creating multi-core processors. These processors contains a single chip which has a multiple processors fitted in it. They are designed in a way that enables them utilize the operating systems of each of every constituent processor. However, there are new designs of processors which have the potential of taking advantage of multiple programs of processors. Due to the closeness of the cores of these processors, they have the capacity to perform at a faster clock rates compared to other multiprocessors (Dedrick, Kraemer, 1998). This has seen a tremendous improvement in the performance of the modern and upcoming microprocessors.

For instance, in 2005, the first PC with a multiple-core microprocessor was introduced in the market. In the near future, it will be possible to have personal computers wit six to eight cores in their processing units. This will create a positive revolution in the utility of microprocessors in many fields.
Microprocessors have gained utility in many fields in domestic arena such as remote controls for television sets, portable games and other sophisticated uses. In the scientific field micro chips have found uses in research work where these chips have been installed in the satellites which help to collect and disseminate in formation collected by them in a faster rate. In addition, these microprocessors are now applied by the military personnel to help in operation of the unmanned aircraft vehicles. In the telecommunication industry, the improvement that has occurred in this industry has helped to open ways of inclusion of microprocessors in phones. Mobile phones have become a personal utility which can carry out various functions other than communication (Parhami, 2005). This has been enabled by the application of micro chip technology and development of small phones which can carry out specific programs during their manufacturing process.

Summary
Microprocessors are the heart of each and every new development. Since the invention of microprocessors, this technology has grown tremendously for the last few years. A microprocessor performs three main functions of carrying out arithmetic and logic unit, moving data from one memory stack to the other and making individual decisions to stop a certain function and shift to another based on the instructions given to it by the user.  I stand to be supported if I say that microprocessor technology has not only eased the rate which we carry out our complex duties but has opened our minds to a complete new direction of technological thought.

This proposal deems to address the non-inclusion of the Local Area Network  Systems Administrator Program (both the Associate Degree and Certificate Course) in the upcoming Fall 2010 Semester of the new Austin Community College Round Rock Campus. We feel that this program, which has been in the ACC Course Listing for years, has been critical in attracting potential students to the college and has proven its merits to the community, and should, therefore, be included in the upcoming roster of courses for the ACC-Round Rock Campus.

Austin Community College prides itself as the number one college choice among local high school graduates and adults, with its exemplary host of educators and state-of-the-art facilities. More than 40,000 students enroll each year in more than 180 programs that range from four-year degrees to two-year vocational courses.  With the completion of all phases of the Round Rock campus, an additional 10,000 students will be accommodated by the ACC system. Unfortunately, the RRC will only be offering twelve programs for this semester, one of which will be the Local Area Network  Systems Administrator Tech Prep program. With this few courses in line next semester, the projected number of enrollees for the RRC would not reach the estimated the number of enrollees for the semester. Such numbers would indicate a decrease in the schools over-all income that could possibly be used for further developments in the campus.

More specifically, there have been questions and appeals from Local Area Network  Systems Administrator undergraduates from the different ACC campuses regarding the opening of the course at Round Rock. It would seem that these students are clamoring to transfer to the new campus and would like to request the acceptance of transferees of the course for next semester. By opening the course to the transferees, we, in turn, attract potential students in the vicinity of the RRC.

Finally, by opening the course by Fall 2010 and with RRC top-notch facilities, we can create a cutting-edge, competitive Systems Administrator Program for our students. Not only will the course become more beneficial for the students, its criteria will attract more potential enrollees to the course.

With this, we would like to propose to the board the inclusion of the said course in the list of courses in the Round Rock Campus by analyzing the feasibility of the project and its implementation in accordance to this research. The following section of this memo would include the proposed program, its benefits and procedure, the schedule, our qualifications and experience, the proposed budget for the research and implementation, and the appendix.

Proposed Program and Procedure.
We will perform the following tasks to determine the best process and guidelines by which to implement the Local Area Network  Systems Administrator course in the Round Rock Campus.
Task 1. Calculate the number of would-be enrollees, both transferees and freshmen, of course for Fall 2010.

We will conduct a research to arrive at an estimated number of enrollees by contacting possible transferees and first-time enrollees. For the latter, we would conduct a survey among the possible freshmen in the immediate community to assess their likelihood to enroll in the Local Area Network  Systems Administrator course, whether as a degree or certificate holder. This task will be scheduled from May until June 2010.

Task 2. Create a probable course curriculum and requirements, including the number of required professors, equipment and materials.

Based on the collected data, we will concoct a curriculum that would satisfy the program needs of the transferees and incoming freshmen, and at the same time satisfy the budgetary guidelines of the course. We would also start contacting possible professors, and acquire all the necessary equipment and materials needed, all based on the budget proposed and approved by the board. Upon final approval of the implementation, necessary press releases and advertising will be posted to announce the opening of the said course in the RRC.

Schedule for this task will be from June until July 2010.

Task 3. Prepare for implementation of inclusion in the Round Rock Campus.
Preparation will include the final procurement of necessary equipment, like computers and reading materials, and the transportation of these items to the RRC. The assigned rooms, most probably inside the Applied Technologies Building, would be occupied and prepared for the incoming students. Preparations would last from July until August 2010.

Qualifications and Experience.
We bring to the project the following qualifications
Lyndon McPhee, Program Director
Ten-years teaching experience on Computer Information Technology in ACC
Knowledgeable with ACC protocols and needs
Jeanette James, Intern
Senior Local Area Network  Systems Administrator in ACC

Budget Breakdown
Following is a rough budget for the implementation of the course
ProgramActivityCostAdvertising and Media10,000Logistics
Facilities
Computers provided
Maintenance
10,000
4,000
2,000Miscellaneous2,000GRAND TOTAL28,000

Abstract
This study gathered information on what can be considered the most significant invention in our world. The computer has been identified as the best the information will provide readers on the benefits of the computer and its impact on peoples lives.

Introduction
Inventions have been one of the most important creations in human development. Some inventions like the railroad have led to connection of transportation of people and goods from one place to another. Electricity from an electrical power station and its distribution line is also another marvelous creation which provides practical solution to our daily appliance needs. The Telephone by Alexander Graham Bell, which is also another amazing important invention in which hastens not only the communication of  society but the overall advancement in operation of commerce.

There are more important inventions that have impacted society and Global development, but among all of these what can be considered as the most significant invention of our time

This study will attempt to consider that the invention of the Computer can be considered the most significant invention of our time. A brief overview of the computer will also be included in the first part of this essay. Then, this research will also cite the reasons behind that statement and will provide discussion on the numerous benefits of the computer in the progression of human society and the impact it has made for our World. All of this information will validate that the computer is the most significant invention of all time.

History of the Computer
The fundamental function of the computer can be defined as a machine which is used for automatic calculations (WordNet Princeton 2010).

The background of the creation of the computer can be traced way back on the year 1837, when the first stored- program mechanical computer called the Analytical Engine was invented by the British mathematics professor Charles Babbage (Big Site of Amazing Facts 2010). After this invention, a series of development occurred that has conceptualized original computers by the use of relay technology (Allan 1931, p. 20). And then came forth on the 1940s the application of the Vacuum Tube Technology, when John Atanasoff developed and used it for its electric computers (Allan 1931, p.21). Purpose of this technology is to mechanize large systems calculations of linear algebraic equations this computer was called the ABC computer (Allan 1931, p.22).This computer already has somehow what we now called the memory, which has the capacity for storage of almost 200 bytes (Allan 1931, p.25).And from that time continuous improvement on memory was being experimented and done by other inventors and developers, transistors and integrated circuits were also used for increased utilization and power of the computer, however it was the software and graphics that facilitated the practical application of the computer (Allan 1931, p.29).

Benefits of the Computer
Turning Other Inventions Obsolete by its Enhanced Abilities
Aside from its basic calculating features from the early times, computers now have developed into an impressive machine that can almost do anything. Its numerous benefits range from the most basic to the most sophisticated of an activity, and with the advent of Internet in this information age, the computers power and capability has been boundless. The computer also compliments other machines and made them more usable and relevant.

Nowadays computers have turned earlier machines obsolete. One of its basic functions for example is typing. Before computers, the typewriter has been the only machine that can do this task, and if you commit a mistake during typing on a typewriter you still need a liquid paper to cover the error and type it again, with the computer it is just a matter of pressing backspace on the computers keyboard and then retype again, without the fuss and loud mechanical noise.

Storage for Data
Nowadays, computers have massive bytes intended for storage of almost any soft documents and files. People can save their work or assignments in the computer to be printed out later, audiophiles can download, ripcopy from an existing CD, burn a blank CD, save and transfer music on their mp3 players.

Instead of bulky photo albums and picture frames, people can transfer and save their photographs from their digital cameras on to their computers easily. And even if its already a developed picture, equipment such as a scanner attached to the computer can easily convert those to files to be saved on their PCs, and theres a lot more you can store movies or videos, programs, etc.

Communication
An area on where computer also improve is in communications, with the use of the computer and the internet the world has become small. Instead of the regular snail mail, there is now email and combined with the internet people can send letter across the globe easily and fast without the use of a stamp and an envelope. And it does not end there, with another new technology the voice over internet protocol or commonly known as VoIP people with a computer and access with the internet now can do computer to computer voice calls and even video calls to any person they want around the Globe for free and if you opt for a Computer of PC to phone conversation this comes with relatively minimal fees compared to the regular rates of a phone service (Federal Communications Commission 2010). Individuals benefit by engaging in the conversations not from only people they know but connecting with others as well through vast social media of the internet.

Business
Another area, on which the computer dominated, is how people now are doing business. Apart from the normal communication benefit, computers now most of the time operates machines in factories, a good example is in the manufacturing of cars in which a series of computer program are being utilized to control robots that assemble cars, Also the application of computer diagnostics have helped owners realize engine problems or other problems before any damage is done, this is because their cars are now built with computer-on board help, the absence of this technology have made mechanics endure trial and error method just to analyze what was the problem of a car (The People History 2010).

Now we also have ATMs on where we can get our money fast and easy, we can pay our utility bills with the online 247 banking account, we can also shop online for some of the products we need or desire using the computer. Managers and executives always use their computers and its programs to analyze sales reports, expenses and monitor overall operations of a business with the help of the computer. This has really helped a lot of businesses to grow rapidly since managers can make accurate and quick decisions base on what the computer and its program calculation results.

People does not need to go door to door to companies looking for a job, with their computer and access to the internet they can create an outstanding looking resume, even get their photo taken and edit it via a webcam installed on their own computer and just send it to companies websites for application.

Medical
The computer also have a big impact on this field alone, with the advancement of machine designs, diagnosis of illness from the doctors using computer has never been better and precise, not only by diagnosis of illness but also on curing diseases and surgical operations (ScienceDaily 2010), which have been beneficial to a lot of people.

Conclusion
There is no single invention that has made the most significant impact to our world than the computer. It has turned other machines obsolete by having an improve system. It has touch and has an effect almost all the surfaces of our society. From the way it enhanced our communication, The world become small now anyone with a computer and an internet access can download a software to make either PC to PC or PC to phone calls, not even limited to communicate with the people we are familiar with but we can connect with others as well with the help of online social sites.

Business has never been efficient today as well, because of all the advance computer technology being applied. Companies can now quickly know what the status of their overall operation is and can decide and act quickly based on the information provided by the computer. People can now enjoy staying at their home, applying for a job, doing bank transactions, shopping, paying bills with just a PC and their online access.

The computer has improved the quality of life due to its importance in the medical field people get diagnosed and get cured much better.

There are still a lot of other benefits of the computer that have not been discussed in this study however the main points are stated according to its overall impact and importance to our society. The computer indeed is the most significant, and the best invention ever, and the thing is, with more advance technology to be discovered and innovated through, its performance and capabilities will still get even better.

Bhatt, G. D.  Grover, V., 2005. Types of information technology capabilities and their role in
competitive advantage An empirical study. Journal of Management Information Systems, vol 22, no. 2, pp. 253-277.

In this article, Bhatt and Grover examine the role of different types of information
technology in companys competitive advantage. The authors use data gathered from a survey of chief information technology executives from various manufacturing companies to determine the types of capabilities of information technology. Their research focuses on how these capabilities can improve the competitive advantage of a manufacturing company. The article is very relevant to the research topic because it helps widen the understanding of students on the value of information technology to the companys success. The main limitation of the article is the use of similar respondent for both dependent and independent variables, thus the authors suggest the need to use various techniques of measuring the relation between information technology capabilities and competitive advantage to eliminate bias. This article will help form the basis of research on information technology, particularly its role in improving the competitive advantage of a company.

Bresnahan, T. F., Brynjolfsson, E.,  Hitt, L. M., 2002. Information technology, workplace
organization, and the demand for skilled labor Firm-level evidence. Quarterly Journal of Economics. pp. 1-45.

In this article, Bresnahan et al. examine the impact of change in information technology on the organizational structure and demand for skilled workers. The authors use the literature review and surveys of managers to determine the companies strategies and reasons for implementing information technology in order to develop hypothesis at the business level about the pros and cons of information technology on productivity. Their research focuses on analyzing the complementarity of using information technology to an organization that utilizes skilled labor. The article is relevant to the research topic because it demonstrates the key roles of information technology in enabling organizational change. The main limitation of article is the difficulty of analyzing complementarities based on direct production framework, thus the authors suggest the need to conduct more research covering this framework. This article is relevant to the research topic because it demonstrates the need to investment in information technology to improve the skills of labor force.

Chiasson, M. W.  Davidson, E., 2005. Taking industry seriously in information systems
research. Mis Quarterly, vol 29, no. 4, pp. 591-605.

In this article, Chiasson and Davidson argue the lack of research on information systems focusing on industries. The authors use literature review to draw evidence about the influence of the industry on activities of the information system. Their research focuses on analyzing several ways on how the industry can influence the development of information system theory and can be integrated in the information system research. The article is relevant to the research topic because it illustrates the importance of the industry as the main component when developing and testing information technologies and systems. The main limitation of the article is the lack of literature illustrating the influence of the industry on information system activities, thus the authors stress the need to further research integrating the industry in information technology study. This article will help increase the research on information technology focusing on the influence of the industry.

Dedrick, J.  Kraemer, K. L., 2005. The impacts of IT on firm and industry structure The
personal computer industry. California Management Review, vol 47, no. 3, pp. 122-142.

In this article, Dedrick and Kraemer discuss the impacts of information technology on the organization structure of the personal computer industry. The authors use data obtained from field interviews of information technology managers and executives, case histories of firms, and literature review to determine the main changes that took place in the industry after adopting information technology. Their research focuses on various information technology systems implemented by the industry that enable companies to gain several changes in their value chains. The article is relevant to the research topic because it highlights the role of information technology in initiating changes in the industrys organizational structure. The main limitation of the article is that the data is restricted only to the personal computer industry, thus the authors suggest the need to conduct research focusing on other types of industries. This article will help form the basis of research on information technology, particularly its applications and benefits to industries.

Kane, G. C.  Alavi, M., 2007. Information technology and organizational learning An
investigation of exploration and exploitation processes. Organizational Science, vol 18, no. 5, pp. 796-812.

In this article, Kane and Alavi examine the impact of information technology on the development and use of organizational learning. The authors use a computer simulation of organizational learning by relying on published case histories of an organization. Their research focuses on the effect of different types of information technology on organizational learning processes, which include knowledge repositories of best practices, communication technology, and groupware. The article is useful to the research topic because organizational learning and knowledge based on information technology can influence the performance and survival of an organization. The main limitation of the article is the oversimplification of the research due to the use of computer simulation, thus the authors suggest the need to conduct research focusing on a real world framework. This article will help form the basis of research on information technology because there are other factors to consider when studying information technology-based organizational learning such as environmental conditions.

Kim, S.  Lee, H., 2006. The impact of organizational context and information technology on
employee knowledge-sharing capabilities. Public Administration Review, vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 370-385.

In this article, Kim and Lee analyze the role of information technology in enhancing the perceptions of employees on the capabilities of knowledge sharing. The authors utilize data from five public and five private sector organizations in South Korea in order to identify various factors that affect employees adoption of information technology. Their research focuses on assessing factors that affect the knowledge-sharing abilities of employees in both sectors such as centralization, social networks, reward systems, information technology systems, and utilization of information technology applications. The article is useful to the research topic because it demonstrates the various benefits of information technology to the organization. The main limitation of the article is that the study did not determine particular mechanisms for the implementation of shared knowledge in the organization, thus the authors suggest the need of more extensive research to understand the benefits of information technology and sharing knowledge in public administration. This article will help generate research on information transfer and knowledge sharing in governmental agencies.

Kraemer, K. L.  King, J. L., 2005. Information technology and administrative reform Will e-
government be different International Journal of Electronic Government, pp. 1-18.

In this article, Kraemer and King investigate the role of information technology in initiating reform in the government in the United States. The authors use literature review on electronic government to determine the possible impact of information technology on changing the structure of the government. Their research focuses on the experiences of public organizations in the United States in using information technology since the introduction of personal computers during the first part of 1950s. The article is very relevant to the research topic because there are various reasons for the application of information technology to influence organizational structure. The main limitation of the article is that the data only focus on the United States, thus the authors indicate the need to conduct research focusing on the experiences of other countries. This article will help form the basis of research on information technology by comparing the technology impacts experienced by other countries.

Lee. J. N., 2001. The impact of knowledge sharing, organizational capability and partnership
quality on IS outsourcing success. Information  Management, vol 38, pp. 323-335.
In this article, Lee discusses the impact of information and knowledge sharing on the success of the organizations outsourcing functions. The author uses data gathered from personal interviews with information system outsourcing experts and organizational and partnership capability of public sectors in Korea to determine the impact of explicit and implicit information and knowledge sharing on outsourcing success. His research focuses on the capability of receiver of services to adopt the knowledge and of firms to establish a partnership in order to achieve success in outsourcing. The article is relevant to the research topic because it illustrates the importance of adopting information technology in order to build partnership with other companies and obtain success in outsourcing. The main limitation of the study is that it only focuses on the perspectives of service receivers, thus the author suggests the need to conduct research focusing on the benefits to service providers. This article will help form the basis of research on the usefulness of information technology to the organizations success.

Orlikowski, W. J.  Barley, S. R., 2001. Technology and institutions What can research on
information technology and research on organizations learn from each other Mis Quarterly, vol 25, no.2, pp. 145-165.

In this article, Orlikowski and Barley contend the potential benefits of integrating both research in information technology and analysis of organizational structures by taking into account the material characteristics of technologies. The authors use literature review to show that current transformations taking place in the organization can be better understood by exploring both the innovations in information technology and the institutional concepts that are impacting the organization. Their research focuses on analyzing the differences between technology research and organizational analysis and the benefits that can be achieved when both are integrated. The article is relevant to the research topic because of enormous changes taking place in the fields of technology and organizational studies. The main limitation of the article is the lack of organizational research focusing on technological system, thus the authors suggest the need to improve the collaboration between scholars of organizations and scholars of information technology. This article will help initiate hybrid research focusing both on organizational analysis and information technology.

Zaliwski, A. Organization, structure and information technology. Retrieved April 11, 2010,
from httpressources.ciheam.orgompdfc4400800095.pdf.

In this article, Zaliwski reviews various concepts of utilizing information technology in the assessment of organization structures, particularly in the service industry. The author uses data acquired from the analysis of changes in Polands economy in order to determine the impact of information technology on the companys strategic plan to sustain its competitive advantage. The authors research focuses on the challenge for system analysts and managers in utilizing the emerging concept of virtual or network organization. The article is useful to the research topic because there are various forms of organization that have emerged where the potentials of information technology have been exploited. The main limitation of the article is the unpopularity of role of information technology in sustaining competitive advantage among managers and system analysts, thus the author suggests the need to conduct research to increase the understanding about the emerging applications of information technology in organizational structures. This article is relevant to the research topic because it illustrates the key role of information technology in the development of organizational structures.

Zammuto, R. F., Griffith, T. L., Majchrzak, A., Dougherty, D. J.,  Faraj, S., 2007. Information
technology and the changing fabric of organization. Organization Science, vol 18, no. 5, pp. 749-762

In this article, Zammuto et al. discuss the changes that took place in the relationship between organization and information technology. The authors use literature review to illustrate the interplay between information technology and organizational change. Their research focuses on analyzing research articles to highlight the role of technology in the development of organizational concepts. The article is relevant to the research topic because there are various reasons why information technology can influence change in the organization. The main limitation of the article is that it focuses only on individual facets of information technology and organization, thus the authors suggest the need to conduct research highlighting a study of organization and information technology in combination. This article will help form the basis of research on information technology because there is still a need to make organizational theory more applicable to the age of information.